Sustainable Agriculture and Natural Resource Management (SANREM) Knowledgebase

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The Sustainable Agriculture and Natural Resource Management (SANREM) Knowledgebase is a collection of information resources (books, reports, journal articles, videos, movies, presentations) produced or identified, classified, and summarized by SANREM researchers. This collection provides direct access or links to resources relevant to sustainable agriculture and natural resource management. - http://www.oired.vt.edu/sanremcrsp/professionals/knowledgebase/

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  • The anatomy of market failure
    Bator, F. M. (The MIT Press, 1958)
    The paretian maximization-of-welfare problem has embedded within it a set of constants, 'duals' or shadow prices, which have all the analytical characteristics of prices, wages, rents, and interest rates. Implied in this analysis is the notion that decentralized market calculations correctly account for all 'economic' costs and benefits. Duality can fail in 5 ways: by existence--no set of relative market prices will accurately reflect the maximization of a welfare function by being equated to a set of marginal rates of substitution; by signal--the price system guides profit-maximizing entrepreneurs into a position of profit minimum or local profit maximums rather than the maximum maximorum; by incentive--the price system allows negative profits in some desired industries; by structure--if self-policing perfect competition is not present, then prices do not lead to pareto optimality; and by enforcement--if there is some arbitrary legal or organizational imperfection in the market which prevents introduction of proper accounting prices for inputs or outputs into maximization decisions. These five modes are due to three possible causes of market failure: ownership externalities, technical externalities, and public goods externalities. Economic discussions of water often invoke the technical, ownership and public goods externalities in the analysis of pricing and valuing of water uses. This article presents a comprehensive classification scheme for markets, that like the water market, require public intervention in their functioning. (sokoloff-rutgers)
  • Myodegeneration in cattle grazing Cassia species
    Henson, J. B.; Dollahite, J. W.; Bridges, C.; Rao, R. R. (American Veterinary Medical Association, 1965)
    Widespread skeletal myodegeneration in cattle was associated with a disease syndrome characterized by an afebrile course, abnormally dark red urine, incoordination, recumbency, and death. The plants Cassia occidentalis or Cassia obtusifolia grew in the pastures and has been grazed by affected cattle, and appeared to have caused the disease.
  • Cassia occidentalis Toxicosis in Cattle
    Mercer, H. D.; Neal, F. C.; Himes, J. A.; Edds, G. T. (United States: American Veterinary Medical Association, 1967)
    Results of this experiment indicate that Cassia occidentalis is a toxic plant capable of producing significant losses in cattle. The toxicologic syndrome in the acute form was characterized by sudden onset, recumbency, dark urine, and extensive myodegeneration. A chronic form of the condition may prove to be more important for livestock production, especially in areas where cattle have free access to the plant. Certain enzymic changes were marked a day or two before death. Hematologic changes were insignificant until 12 hours before death. Myopathic lesions in the hindlimbs were found consistently at necropsy.
  • Agricultural Systems and Pastoralism in Tropical Africa
    Gleave, M. B.; White, H. P. (New Zealand: Hicks Smith, 1972)
    This article explores farming as it relates to effects of the physical environment, the main types of farming practices in tropical Africa, agricultural systems, crops, seasonal rhythms, other activities (such as herding, grazing, etc), and case studies from various countries.
  • The strength of weak ties
    Granovetter, M. S. (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1973)
    This paper stresses the importance of the relationship between organizations or groups that have weak ties. While most research is done on models of strong ties, this paper claims that weak ties are often overlooked. This paper presents an analysis tool for assessment of ties between groups and other social structures.
  • The drought in Niger: Part I - The physical and economic consequences
    Du Bois, V. (Hanover, N.H.: American Universities Field Staff, 1974)
    This field staff report is one of a continuing series on international affairs and major global issues of our time. All reports in the series are prepared by writes who are full-time Associates of the Field Staff, spending long periods abroad and returning to the United States periodically to lecture on the campuses of the universities and colleges that sponsor the American Universities Field Staff.
  • No-Tillage Research Conference
    Phillips, R. E. (ed.) (Lexington, Kentucky: University of Kentucky, College of Agriculture, Agricultural Experiment Station, 1974)
  • The Enterprising Peasant: Economic Development in Gombe Emirate, North Eastern State, Nigeria, 1900-1968
    Tiffen, M. (London, UK: HMSO, 1976)
    The book examines the level of economic growth in Gombe Emirate, north eastern Nigeria over the two generations from the beginning of the century; the time from the first decade to the 1960s saw a fourfold population increase from 150,000 to 600,000 due to natural increase and immigration. From 1949 onwards there has been enormous commercial growth, largely on account of the enterprise of peasant farmers, and without abnormal aid inputs. The nature of the soils and water resources and population density affect settlement and land use. There are four main soil types in the area; red loamy soils, used mainly for wet season grazing as their water retention is low, moderately fertile loamy soils, clayey and heavy loam soils used mainly for cotton growing, and rocky hill soils which have thin soils and are mainly forest reserves. The Fulani have been the dominant group in the area politically and numerically; this population consists of cattle Fulani, semi-settled Fulani and settled Fulani. During the 1930s many semi-nomadic Fulani settled in southern Gombe and, on account of the good grazing and farm land, decided to stay, some giving up their herds altogether to concentrate on cotton and corn production. Settlers frequently travel for miles with their families, bringing supplies of seed and tools for farming; loans of money and small scale food for work schemes are in operation to tide the settlers over until the first harvest. Although most farmers believe that they have attained a higher standard of living since settling, shortage of cash resources is the most frequently cited problem faced by new settlers. The settlement has been voluntary and as such has produced greater returns than government aided schemes. The general direction of development has shown wider access to markets resulting in increased agricultural production, and increased wealth stimulating industrial development. The enterprising characteristics of the farmers have been the most important agent of development in the region, particularly the willingness to migrate and experiment with new production methods. The major reason for the spurt of activity is the higher prices offered for livestock, a commodity which they have the resources to produce. Agricultural production has been stimulated by the fact that the size of the home market allows increased access to international markets; isolation from markets is the greatest hindrance to development, and remote villages suffer from poorly developed road networks. This also limits the extent to which villages can specialize in response to soil quality, as they need to be self-sufficient for parts of the year. Labor has been a constraint to development and, apart from the plough, there have been few labor-saving implements made available; capital constraints arise out of the fact that farmers have to sell all their produce in the dry season when the roads are open, but suffer from considerable cash-flow difficulties during the wet season. Events in Nigeria have shown that migration to more favorable employment can take place within the rural sector and does not imply the gradual rural urban flow. The strategy for future development is dependent upon Nigerians deciding their own social and political objectives. - Blench and Marriage Annotated Bibliography
  • Annex H: Niger range and livestock project social soundness analysis
    Aronson, D. R. (1976)
    The Niger Range and Livestock Project has the twin aims of increasing the incomes of pastoralists in central Niger, and finding a long-term ecological balance in the zone. Sheep epidemic and the risk of cattle or camel rustling have resulted in the overrepresentation of goats in the Tuareg herds. The Tuareg form a small, politically independent group which is heavily involved in the market as a means of rebuilding their herds. They are relatively sedentary, but transhume along a northwest-southwest route to the salt cure. The Peul recognize the dominance of the Tuareg, and live in scattered and small communities and lack deep kinship groups; this makes for difficult census taking. They have few market needs and are irregular in their transhumance patterns. The paper outlines the forces which have brought change to the region. Firstly is the destruction of the Tuareg traditional political economy by the French, then the intensification of agriculture through the freeing of Tuareg slaves. The creation of a national boundary with Nigeria blighted the Tuareg trade routes, and this was followed by a decline in the terms of trade. Population pressure increased as a result of national social policy and the building of wells, and the onset of the Sahelian drought gave rise to in higher losses. The project is experimental in nature, and has broad implications, particularly in the light of a changing environment, including the tripling of uranium mine labor demands and the competition for salt trade. It is founded on the establishment of social organization and communication, both of which are hampered by the low population density. There is no guarantee of success, and the project may see the number of pastoralists continuing to decline. However, if it is successful, pastoralists will be encouraged to change their management strategies by overcoming technical constraints which they now face, and their level of autonomy will be enhanced by their increased bargaining power in the Nigerian economy. Replicability will be assured by the intensive research into herding management and the development of cost-effective technical intervention, although it is recognized that other areas have different social arrangements and managing practices. -from Blench and Marriage Annotated Bibliography
  • High bridewealth, migrant labour and the position of women in Lesotho
    Murray, C. (Cambridge University Press on behalf of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 1977)
    This essay discusses the high bride wealth in Lesotho, as well as discussing the role of women and migrant labor. It strives to explain the high bridewealth that is persistent in Lesotho and the article discusses the author's economic theory behind it.
  • Environmental quality and issues of adoption research
    Pampel, F.; van Es, J. (Columbia, MO: The Rural Sociological Society, 1977)
    The authors find that existing knowledge of adoption behavior is most applicable to commercial agricultural practices, and that adoption of environmental practices does not relate to adoption of commercial practices. Environmental innovativeness is not predicted well by demographic variables commonly used in adoption research.
  • Cattle, rainfall, and tsetse in Africa
    Bourn, D. (Elsevier B.V., 1978)
    Increased population pressure has led to attempts to reclaim some to the ten million square miles of Africa in which tsetse fly occur. The paper traces the occurrence of tsetse fly, and its impact on cattle. In tsetse free areas, cattle biomass increases with rainfall, but in countries partially infested with tsetse, no clear relationship with rainfall is shown, and countries with high incidence of tsetse have low cattle biomasses whatever the rainfall. The author concludes that if tsetse fly were to be eradicated, this could lead to an increase in the biomass of cattle in these regions. He cautions that this could entail the degradation of much of the land as has occurred in tsetse free areas, and then the decline in productivity; he proposes that research into optimum carrying capacity should be carried out in order to maximize production. He asserts that optimum carrying capacity predictions derived from meteorological statistics have some validity, and would be useful for desirable stocking levels for economic assessment of tsetse eradication programs, and for livestock development projects generally. -b/m
  • The role of seasonality in a West African pastoral economy
    Swift, J. (Sussex, UK: Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex, 1978)
    The paper focuses on the nomadic pastoralist Kel Adrar Twareg of north Mali, who divide their year into three approximately equal seasons: a hot rainy season, a cold dry season, and a hot dry season. The rainfall, which is highly variable, is the product of the West African monsoons, the pastoral environments being at the extremity of the monsoon range. Plant production is more or less directly related to total annual rainfall. The effects of climatic seasonality are modified by animal breeding cycles. Camels, which have a gestation period of one year, are given a calving interval of 24 months, which increases the period of lactation, and enhances the chance of the calf's survival. The breeding of other animals is also manipulated. Among sheep this involves ensuring that young are born when there is adequate pasture available, so generally only one lambing season in the year. Goats have different requirements and are sometimes born after the end of the rainy season when the tree and shrub growth is still sufficient, and this allows for two kid crops a year. The arrangement of breeding periods allows for lactation to be spread reasonably evenly through the year, apart from during the hot dry season. Camels and goats are superior to sheep and cattle for subsistence purposes, as their lactation period is longer. This should be borne in mind by development agencies. Millet is bought or bartered using animals or salt carried from the Tawdenni mines. Grain storage problems mean that it is not necessarily possible for them to buy and sell when the prices are in their favor; generally they have to buy millet in the hot dry season when the price is highest. Pastoralism is more vulnerable to seasonality than sedentary agriculture, and, in order to mitigate this, pastoralists adjust their demographic regulation, their meat consumption and their practice of alternative activities. Rich pastoralists are better able to cope with drought than the poor, in that they can raise different livestock species, and have more contacts for assistance. During times of shortage, they are also in a position to loan a lactating animal or to make other gifts; this serves a redistributive purpose in minor seasonal crises, but when the situation worsens they have a lot of favors to call in. Seasonal variations have always been an aspect of pastoral life, and the crisis in the Sahel cannot be attributed to them. The problem that is facing pastoralists is that the external economy, on which they are increasingly dependent, and which acts as a drain on the resources and services of the pastoral system. Seasonality may compound this in that economic differentiation is hastened, and an increasing number of pastoralists are put in the position, during severe dry spells, to sell their animals and access rights and seek wage employment. Accordingly, development policy should target fundamental variables such as control of land and water, in that it is through such management that productivity can be increased and benefits distributed over the year. Sedentarization will accentuate the effects of seasonality unless it is accompanied by irrigation and/or fodder storage. The provision of banking or credit schemes or grain storage facilities would allow pastoralists to buy grain when the price is low.
  • Drought and dependence in the Sahel
    Ball, N. (1978)
    The relationship between human activity and environmental degradation has been documented in numerous studies. With regard to West Africa, E.P. Stebbing was already warning of ecological degradation due to overcultivation and overgrazing in the 1930s. Less well documented are the reasons why people who understand many of the requirements of ecologically sound farming and herding nonetheless mismanage natural resources to the point of disaster. An examination of the 1968-1973 drought in the Sahel zone of West Africa (formerly French West Africa) suggests that the lack of economic autonomy for Sahelian countries is a major cause not only of their economic stagnation and underdevelopment but equally of the degradation of their ecosystems. Specific policies, initiated during the colonial period and continued by independent governments, can be identified as reducing the ability of West African farmers and herders to exploit their environment with an adequate safety margin. Largely as a result of the 1968-1973 drought, there has been an upsurge of interest in the Sahel on the part of international and national aid agencies. However, it is very possible that the programs devised by these groups will promote neither economic autonomy nor ecological stability for the countries in that region. A development strategy based largely on self-reliance, on the other hand, could the more successful in protecting both the populations and the ecology of the Sahel. [Journal Article; In English; United States] --Medline
  • The Economics of Pastoralism: A Case Study of Sub-Saharan Africa
    Konczacki, Z. A. (ed.) (UK: Frank Cass and Company, Ltd., 1978)
    Livestock is regarded as a capital good on the basis of its ability to reproduce itself and thus create an income for its owner, this being in the form of animals and consumption goods. The system of herding practiced particularly in East Africa is subjected to economic analysis, with the result that the prestige factor of hoarding cattle is considered secondary to the economic motivation. Growing human and animal populations have not been accompanied by an increase in rangeland, precipitating, it is conjectured, a boom and crash sequence depending on the vagaries of the weather. The problem stems, in the author's eyes, from the unrestricted access to pasture. This is to be tackled by the increased off-take from herds and the institution of property rights which protect the land from overgrazing. The possibility of forced sedentarization is rejected, as this has proved counterproductive in the past. However, it is understood that making nomads contribute through taxes is problematic; taxes on selling and exporting cattle are understood to be regressive, and do not include those who do not sell animals. However, the contribution of the pastoralists to the national income is greater than it would be if the nomads were settled as laborers or unemployed in the city; furthermore, the health of pastoral nomads is almost invariably better than that of city or village dwellers. Sedentarization is also connected with increased birth rate, which puts further pressure on the soil as the demand for carbohydrate production increases, leading in some cases to greater degradation of the land. -from Blench and Marriage Annotated Bibliography
  • Must Nomads Settle? Some Notes Toward Policy on the Future of Pastoralism
    Aronson, D. R. (New York: Praeger [a J. F. Bergin Publishers book], 1980)
    Pastoralists have been settling and uprooting continuously, but current development thinking regards nomads as opponents, rather than valuing the knowledge they have acquired from generations of adaptation. Similarly, communication does not flow the other way, and pastoralists are generally unaware of the directions of government development planning. There are six features of pastoral life which need to be understood: pastoralists are engaged in multi-resource economies; they move out of necessity rather than choice; economic decisions are made with a view to long term security; production aims to maximize the number of goals, not just economic goals; ownership and management of herds may be in different hands; pastoralists are vigilant to changes in their environment. Policy directed towards pastoral communities must do away with stereotypical images of nomadic herders; sedentarization is frequently unviable, for the reason that, if it were an appropriate response to the conditions in hand, the pastoralists would make it unaided. Policy recommendations regarding pastoralists can come from two angles; either they hope to destroy pastoralism as a means of livelihood, or they hope to enhance the lives of the pastoralist as legitimate citizens. Assuming the latter position, areas for development would be access to veterinary medicine and relations between pastoralists and other members of the population. It is a mistake to presume that the crux of the pastoralist system is the contribution it makes to the national economy; on the contrary, it is often only the surplus to subsistence needs which goes to market. Priorities for development lie in improving the standard of living for pastoralists and secondly, increasing the growth of the national economy to which they contribute. The decline of pastoralism is not inevitable from an environmental point of view, as enough rangeland exists to support large numbers of people and herds. -from Blench and Marriage Annotated Bibliography
  • Livestock development and range use in Nigeria
    Awogbade, M. O. (Ottawa, Canada: International Development Research Centre (IDRC), 1980)
    Factors affecting the pastoral sector in Nigeria are: the increased demand for livestock produce as a result of increased population, drought in the Sahel, the need for government guidelines on management, and the increasing constraints on pastoralists. The challenge is to satisfy the demand without suffering from problems of overgrazing, over intensive cultivation, and ecological disruptions; the official line is that settlement is the only solution. Inadequate information on livestock numbers means that it is impossible to assess the efficiency of range use. The Fulani are the major livestock producers, practicing a transhumance pattern of husbandry, but their obstacles which include fodder and water shortage, lack of means for improved production, and disease risks have led many of them to adopt a sedentary life. This has been accompanied by a breakdown in the symbiotic relationship between the nomadic and sedentary communities; Fulani now often have to pay for grazing their animals on crop residues as the introduction of fertilizers has led cultivators to believe that manure is no longer needed. The establishment of grazing reserves is possible only if production capabilities of renewable resources and the optimal economic use of the potentials in these reserves are linked into one system of interdependent actions; a complete overhaul of the role of goals and strategies for self-sufficiency is needed. -from Blench and Marriage Annotated Bibliography
  • Circle of Poison: Pesticides and People in a Hungry World
    Weir, D.; Schapiro, M. (Oakland, CA: Institute for Food and Development Policy, 1981)
    In this book, the author explores the problem of U.S. corporations dumping banned drugs and pesticides into Third World markets. This book argues that globalization and international trade has endangered people in less developed countries who lack the necessary regulations and literacy to safely handle dangerous pesticides. Dumping these harmful chemicals in other countries has had a drastically negative effect on the health of local people. This book closes the circle by looking at how developed countries then import products treated with those banned substances, further implying that the trade of harmful pesticides affects everyone.
  • WaterAid: Water for Life
    WaterAid (London, UK: WaterAid, 1981)
    Water aid is an international NGO dedicated to bringing water, sanitation, and hygiene education to the world's poorest. The site includes practical links, such as a slide show on step-by-step instruction for building a pit latrine, and a report on cholera case studies in Burkina Faso. Throughout the site there are links to real stories pointing out the benefits of water and sanitation. The public is invited to participate by getting involved, either through donations or by educating themselves and others. The "drink more water campaign" is a good example on how to educate the public on water related issues. Provides an interactive, fun way to educate while motivating others to contribute and participate.
  • No-Tillage Research: Research Reports and Review
    (Lexington, Kentucky: University of Kentucky, College of Agriculture and Agricultural Experiment Station, 1981)