Destination Area: Global Systems Science (GSS)

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https://hdl.handle.net/10919/78630

GSS fosters transdisciplinary study of the dynamic interplay between natural and social systems. Faculty in this area collaborate to discover creative solutions to critical social problems emergent from human activity and environmental change, in areas such as freshwater and coastal water systems, rural environments, infectious disease, and food production and safety. Work in this area also embraces equity in the human condition by seeking the equitable distribution and availability of physical safety and well-being, psychological well-being, respect for human dignity, and access to crucial material and social resources throughout the world’s diverse communities.

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Assessment of Nutrient Limitation in Floodplain Forests with Two Different Techniques
Neatrour, Matthew A.; Jones, Robert H.; Golladay, Stephen W. (Hindawi, 2008-05-15)
We assessed nitrogen and phosphorus limitation in a floodplain forest in southern Georgia in USA using two commonly used methods: nitrogen to phosphorus (N:P) ratios in litterfall and fertilized ingrowth cores. We measured nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) concentrations in litterfall to determine N:P mass ratios. We also installed ingrowth cores within each site containing native soil amended with nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), or nitrogen and phosphorus (N + P) fertilizers or without added fertilizer (C). Litter N:P ratios ranged from 16 to 22, suggesting P limitation. However, fertilized ingrowth cores indicated N limitation because fine-root length density was greater in cores fertilized with N or N + P than in those fertilized with P or without added fertilizer. We feel that these two methods of assessing nutrient limitation should be corroborated with fertilization trials prior to use on a wider basis.
Cross-scale Perspectives: Integrating Long-term and High-frequency Data into Our Understanding of Communities and Ecosystems
Carey, Cayelan C.; Cottingham, Kathryn L. (Ecological Society of America, 2016-01)
Ecologists are amassing extensive data sets that include both long-term records documenting trends and variability in natural systems on inter-annual to decadal time scales and sensor-based measurements on minute to subhourly scales for extended periods (Hampton et al. 2013). Together, these long- term and high- frequency data are contributing to our ecological understanding. Although there have been several previous ESA sessions that have explored the insights provided by either long-term data or high frequency data, to our knowledge this organized oral session provided one of the first opportunities to synthesize the lessons learned from leveraging both long-term data and high-frequency approaches.
Development and implementation of a scalable and versatile test for COVID-19 diagnostics in rural communities
Ceci, Alessandro; Muñoz-Ballester, Carmen; Tegge, Allison N.; Brown, Katherine L.; Umans, Robyn A.; Michel, F. Marc; Patel, Dipankumar; Tewari, Bhanu P.; Martin, James E.; Alcoreza, Oscar Jr.; Maynard, Thomas M.; Martinez-Martinez, Daniel; Bordwine, Paige; Bissell, Noelle; Friedlander, Michael J.; Sontheimer, Harald; Finkielstein, Carla V. (Nature Publishing Group, 2021-07-20)
Rapid and widespread testing of severe acute respiratory coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is essential for an effective public health response aimed at containing and mitigating the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Successful health policy implementation relies on early identification of infected individuals and extensive contact tracing. However, rural communities, where resources for testing are sparse or simply absent, face distinctive challenges to achieving this success. Accordingly, we report the development of an academic, public land grant University laboratory-based detection assay for the identification of SARS-CoV-2 in samples from various clinical specimens that can be readily deployed in areas where access to testing is limited. The test, which is a quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR)-based procedure, was validated on samples provided by the state laboratory and submitted for FDA Emergency Use Authorization. Our test exhibits comparable sensitivity and exceeds specificity and inclusivity values compared to other molecular assays. Additionally, this test can be re-configured to meet supply chain shortages, modified for scale up demands, and is amenable to several clinical specimens. Test development also involved 3D engineering critical supplies and formulating a stable collection media that allowed samples to be transported for hours over a dispersed rural region without the need for a cold-chain. These two elements that were critical when shortages impacted testing and when personnel needed to reach areas that were geographically isolated from the testing center. Overall, using a robust, easy-to-adapt methodology, we show that an academic laboratory can supplement COVID-19 testing needs and help local health departments assess and manage outbreaks. This additional testing capacity is particularly germane for smaller cities and rural regions that would otherwise be unable to meet the testing demand.
Do not feed the wildlife: associations between garbage use, aggression, and disease in banded mongooses (Mungos Mungo)
Flint, Bonnie Fairbanks; Hawley, Dana M.; Alexander, Kathleen A. (Wiley, 2016-07-25)
Urbanization and other human modifications of the landscape may indirectly affect disease dynamics by altering host behavior in ways that influence pathogen transmission. Few opportunities arise to investigate behaviorally mediated effects of human habitat modification in natural host–pathogen systems, but we provide a potential example of this phenomenon in banded mongooses (Mungos mungo), a social mammal. Our banded mongoose study population in Botswana is endemically infected with a novel Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex pathogen, M. mungi, that primarily invades the mongoose host through the nasal planum and breaks in the skin. In this system, several study troops have access to human garbage sites and other modified landscapes for foraging. Banded mongooses in our study site (N = 4 troops, ~130 individuals) had significantly higher within-troop aggression levels when foraging in garbage compared to other foraging habitats. Second, monthly rates of aggression were a significant predictor of monthly number of injuries in troops. Finally, injured individuals had a 75% incidence of clinical tuberculosis (TB) compared to a 0% incidence in visibly uninjured mongooses during the study period. Our data suggest that mongoose troops that forage in garbage may be at greater risk of acquiring TB by incurring injuries that may allow for pathogen invasion. Our study suggests the need to consider the indirect effects of garbage on behavior and wildlife health when developing waste management approaches in human-modified areas.
Dynamic modeling of organic carbon fates in lake ecosystems
McCullough, Ian M.; Dugan, Hilary A.; Farrell, Kaitlin J.; Morales-Williams, Ana M.; Ouyang, Zutao; Roberts, Derek C.; Scordo, Facundo; Bartlett, Sarah L.; Burke, Samantha M.; Doubek, Jonathan P.; Krivak-Tetley, Flora E.; Skaff, Nicholas K.; Summers, Jamie C.; Weathers, Kathleen C.; Hanson, Paul C. (2018-10-24)
Lakes are active processors of organic carbon (OC) and play important roles in landscape and global carbon cycling. Allochthonous OC loads from the landscape, along with autochthonous OC loads from primary production, are mineralized in lakes, buried in lake sediments, and exported via surface or groundwater outflows. Although these processes provide a basis for a conceptual understanding of lake OC budgets, few studies have integrated these fluxes under a dynamic modeling framework to examine their interactions and relative magnitudes. We developed a simple, dynamic mass balance model for OC, and applied the model to a set of five lakes. We examined the relative magnitudes of OC fluxes and found that long-term (> 10 year) lake OC dynamics were predominantly driven by allochthonous loads in four of the five lakes, underscoring the importance of terrestrially-derived OC in northern lake ecosystems. Our model highlighted seasonal patterns in lake OC budgets, with increasing water temperatures and lake productivity throughout the growing season corresponding to a transition from burial- to respiration-dominated OC fates. Ratios of respiration to burial, however, were also mediated by the source (autochthonous vs. allochthonous) of total OC loads. Autochthonous OC is more readily respired and may therefore proportionally reduce burial under a warming climate, but allochthonous OC may increase burial due to changes in precipitation. The ratios of autochthonous to allochthonous inputs and respiration to burial demonstrate the importance of dynamic models for examining both the seasonal and inter-annual roles of lakes in landscape and global carbon cycling, particularly in a global change context. Finally, we highlighted critical data needs, which include surface water DOC observations in paired tributary and lake systems, measurements of OC burial rates, groundwater input volume and DOC, and budgets of particulate OC.
Eco-Ethics and Sustainability Ethics (part 1)
Cairns, John Jr. (Ethics in Science and Environmental Politics, 2003)
This book is part one of a collection of John Cairns, Jr's papers and articles highlighting the importance of eco-ethics and sustainability ethics in protecting the biospheric life support system.
From concept to practice to policy: modeling coupled natural and human systems in lake catchments
Cobourn, Kelly M.; Carey, Cayelan C.; Boyle, Kevin J.; Duffy, Christopher J.; Dugan, Hilary A.; Farrell, Kaitlin J.; Fitchett, Leah Lynn; Hanson, Paul C.; Hart, Julia A.; Henson, Virginia Reilly; Hetherington, Amy L.; Kemanian, Armen R.; Rudstam, Lars G.; Shu, Lele; Soranno, Patricia A.; Sorice, Michael G.; Stachelek, Joseph; Ward, Nicole K.; Weathers, Kathleen C.; Weng, Weizhe; Zhang, Yu (Ecological Society of America, 2018-05-03)
Recent debate over the scope of the U.S. Clean Water Act underscores the need to develop a robust body of scientific work that defines the connectivity between freshwater systems and people. Coupled natural and human systems (CNHS) modeling is one tool that can be used to study the complex, reciprocal linkages between human actions and ecosystem processes. Well‐developed CNHS models exist at a conceptual level, but the mapping of these system representations in practice is limited in capturing these feedbacks. This article presents a paired conceptual–empirical methodology for functionally capturing feedbacks between human and natural systems in freshwater lake catchments, from human actions to the ecosystem and from the ecosystem back to human actions. We address extant challenges in CNHS modeling, which arise from differences in disciplinary approach, model structure, and spatiotemporal resolution, to connect a suite of models. In doing so, we create an integrated, multi‐disciplinary tool that captures diverse processes that operate at multiple scales, including land‐management decision‐making, hydrologic‐solute transport, aquatic nutrient cycling, and civic engagement. In this article, we build on this novel framework to advance cross‐disciplinary dialogue to move CNHS lake‐catchment modeling in a systematic direction and, ultimately, provide a foundation for smart decision‐making and policy.
A global parasite conservation plan
Carlson, Colin J.; Hopkins, Skylar R.; Bell, Kayce C.; Dona, Jorge; Godfrey, Stephanie S.; Kwak, Mackenzie L.; Lafferty, Kevin D.; Moir, Melinda L.; Speer, Kelly A.; Strona, Giovanni; Torchin, Mark; Wood, Chelsea L. (2020-10)
Found throughout the tree of life and in every ecosystem, parasites are some of the most diverse, ecologically important animals on Earth-but in almost all cases, the least protected by wildlife or ecosystem conservation efforts. For decades, ecologists have been calling for research to understand parasites' important ecological role, and increasingly, to protect as many species from extinction as possible. However, most conservationists still work within priority systems for funding and effort that exclude or ignore parasites, or treat parasites as an obstacle to be overcome. Our working group identified 12 goals for the next decade that could advance parasite biodiversity conservation through an ambitious mix of research, advocacy, and management.
Global synthesis of the temperature sensitivity of leaf litter breakdown in streams and rivers
Shah, Jennifer J. Follstad; Kominoski, John S.; Ardon, Marcelo; Dodds, Walter K.; Gessner, Mark O.; Griffiths, Natalie A.; Hawkins, Charles P.; Johnson, Sherri L.; Lecerf, Antoine; Leroy, Carri J.; Manning, David W. P.; Rosemond, Amy D.; Sinsabaugh, Robert L.; Swan, Christopher M.; Webster, Jackson R.; Zeglin, Lydia H. (2017-08)
Streams and rivers are important conduits of terrestrially derived carbon (C) to atmospheric and marine reservoirs. Leaf litter breakdown rates are expected to increase as water temperatures rise in response to climate change. The magnitude of increase in breakdown rates is uncertain, given differences in litter quality and microbial and detritivore community responses to temperature, factors that can influence the apparent temperature sensitivity of breakdown and the relative proportion of C lost to the atmosphere vs. stored or transported downstream. Here, we synthesized 1025 records of litter breakdown in streams and rivers to quantify its temperature sensitivity, as measured by the activation energy (E-a, in eV). Temperature sensitivity of litter breakdown varied among twelve plant genera for which E-a could be calculated. Higher values of E-a were correlated with lower-quality litter, but these correlations were influenced by a single, N-fixing genus (Alnus). E-a values converged when genera were classified into three breakdown rate categories, potentially due to continual water availability in streams and rivers modulating the influence of leaf chemistry on breakdown. Across all data representing 85 plant genera, the E-a was 0.34 +/- 0.04 eV, or approximately half the value (0.65 eV) predicted by metabolic theory. Our results indicate that average breakdown rates may increase by 5-21% with a 1-4 C rise in water temperature, rather than a 10-45% increase expected, according to metabolic theory. Differential warming of tropical and temperate biomes could result in a similar proportional increase in breakdown rates, despite variation in E-a values for these regions (0.75 +/- 0.13 eV and 0.27 +/- 0.05 eV, respectively). The relative proportions of gaseous C loss and organic matter transport downstream should not change with rising temperature given that E-a values for breakdown mediated by microbes alone and microbes plus detritivores were similar at the global scale.
Goals and Conditions for a Sustainable World
Cairns, John Jr. (Ethics in Science and Environmental Politics, 2002)
This book is a collection of John Cairns, Jr.'s papers, articles, and commentaries focusing primarily on goals and conditions needed to achieve the sustainable use of the planet.
GRAPLEr: A Distributed Collaborative Environment for Lake Ecosystem Modeling that Integrates Overlay Networks, High-throughput Computing, and Web Services
Subratie, Kensworth C.; Aditya, Saumitra; Figueiredo, Renato J.; Carey, Cayelan C.; Hanson, Paul C. (2015-09-29)
The GLEON Research And PRAGMA Lake Expedition -- GRAPLE -- is a collaborative effort between computer science and lake ecology researchers. It aims to improve our understanding and predictive capacity of the threats to the water quality of our freshwater resources, including climate change. This paper presents GRAPLEr, a distributed computing system used to address the modeling needs of GRAPLE researchers. GRAPLEr integrates and applies overlay virtual network, high-throughput computing, and Web service technologies in a novel way. First, its user-level IP-over-P2P (IPOP) overlay network allows compute and storage resources distributed across independently-administered institutions (including private and public clouds) to be aggregated into a common virtual network, despite the presence of firewalls and network address translators. Second, resources aggregated by the IPOP virtual network run unmodified high-throughput computing middleware (HTCondor) to enable large numbers of model simulations to be executed concurrently across the distributed computing resources. Third, a Web service interface allows end users to submit job requests to the system using client libraries that integrate with the R statistical computing environment. The paper presents the GRAPLEr architecture, describes its implementation and reports on its performance for batches of General Lake Model (GLM) simulations across three cloud infrastructures (University of Florida, CloudLab, and Microsoft Azure).
Harnessing the Microbiome to Prevent Fungal Infections: Lessons from Amphibians
Walke, Jenifer B.; Belden, Lisa K. (PLOS, 2016-09-08)
All multicellular organisms are host to microbial symbionts that constitute the microbiome and can have significant impacts on the host, including altering development, behavior, and health [1]. In turn, aspects of the host and their environment can influence the microbiome [2]. Here, we briefly summarize current knowledge of the amphibian skin microbiome and its role in heath and disease. Given the increase in fungal diseases that now threaten amphibians and other wildlife—including bees, bats, snakes, and corals, as well as a variety of economically important crops [3]—we hope that lessons learned from amphibian host–microbe interactions can also ultimately be applied in other systems (Fig 1).
High-Throughput Screen for Inhibitors of the Type IV Pilus Assembly ATPase PilB
Dye, Keane J.; Vogelaar, Nancy J.; Sobrado, Pablo; Yang, Zhaomin (2021-03)
The bacterial type IV pilus (T4P) is a prominent virulence factor in many significant human pathogens, some of which have become increasingly antibiotic resistant. Antivirulence chemotherapeutics are considered a promising alternative to antibiotics because they target the disease process instead of bacterial viability. However, a roadblock to the discovery of anti-T4P compounds is the lack of a high-throughput screen (HTS) that can be implemented relatively easily and economically. Here, we describe the first HTS for the identification of inhibitors specifically against the T4P assembly ATPase PilB in vitro. Chloracidobacterium thermophilum PilB (CtPilB) had been demonstrated to have robust ATPase activity and the ability to bind its expected ligands in vitro. We utilized CtPilB and MANT-ATP, a fluorescent ATP analog, to develop a binding assay and adapted it for an HTS. As a proof of principle, we performed a pilot screen with a small compound library of kinase inhibitors and identified quercetin as a PilB inhibitor in vitro. Using Myxococcus xanthus as a model bacterium, we found quercetin to reduce its T4P-dependent motility and T4P assembly in vivo. These results validated our HTS as effective in identifying PilB inhibitors. This assay may prove valuable in seeking leads for the development of antivirulence chemotherapeutics against PilB, an essential and universal component of all bacterial T4P systems. IMPORTANCE Many bacterial pathogens use their type IV pili (T4P) to facilitate and maintain infection of a human host. Small chemical compounds that inhibit the production or assembly of T4P hold promise in the treatment and prevention of infections, especially in the era of increasing threats from antibiotic-resistant bacteria. However, few chemicals are known to have inhibitory or anti-T4P activity. Their identification has not been easy due to the lack of a method for the screening of compound collections or libraries on a large scale. Here, we report the development of an assay that can be scaled up to screen compound libraries for inhibitors of a critical T4P assembly protein. We further demonstrate that it is feasible to use whole cells to examine potential inhibitors for their activity against T4P assembly in a bacterium.
Impact of censusing and research on wildlife populations
Kilpatrick, A. Marm; Hoyt, Joseph R.; King, R. Andrew; Kaarakka, Heather M.; Redell, Jennifer A.; White, J. Paul; Langwig, Kate E. (2020-11)
Population monitoring and research are essential for conserving wildlife, but these activities may directly impact the populations under study. These activities are often restricted to minimize disturbance, and impacts must be weighed against knowledge gained. However, few studies have quantified the effects of research or census-related visitation frequency on populations, and low visitation rates have been hypothesized to have little effect. Hibernating bats have been hypothesized to be especially sensitive to visitation because they have limited energetic stores to survive winter, and disturbance may partly deplete these stores. We examined the effect of site visitation frequency on population growth rates of three species of hibernating bats, little brown bats (Myotis lucifugus), Indiana bats (Myotis sodalis) and tri-colored bats (Perimyotis subflavus), both before and after detection of the disease white-nose syndrome. We found no evidence that more frequent visits decreased population growth rates for any of these species. Estimated coefficients were either the opposite sign as hypothesized (population growth rates increased with visitation frequency) or were very small (difference in population growth rates 0.067% [SE 2.5%]-1.8% [SE 9.8%]) relative to spatial and temporal variation (5.9-32%). In contrast, white-nose syndrome impacts on population growth rates were easily detected and well-characterized statistically (effect sizes 4.4-8.0; severe population declines occurred in the second and third years after pathogen detection) indicating that we had sufficient power to detect effects. These results indicate that visitation frequency (forM. sodalis:annual vs. semi-annual counts; forM. lucifugusandP. subflavus:1-3 three research visits per year) had undetectable impacts on bat population growth rates both with and without the additional stress of an emerging infectious disease. Knowledge gained from censuses and research may outweigh disturbance due to human visitation if it can be used to understand and conserve the species.
Linked within-host and between-host models and data for infectious diseases: a systematic review
Childs, Lauren M.; El Moustaid, Fadoua; Gajewski, Zachary J.; Kadelka, Sarah; Nikin-Beers, Ryan; Smith, John W. Jr.; Walker, Melody; Johnson, Leah R. (PeerJ, 2019-06-19)
The observed dynamics of infectious diseases are driven by processes across multiple scales. Here we focus on two: within-host, that is, how an infection progresses inside a single individual (for instance viral and immune dynamics), and between-host, that is, how the infection is transmitted between multiple individuals of a host population. The dynamics of each of these may be influenced by the other, particularly across evolutionary time. Thus understanding each of these scales, and the links between them, is necessary for a holistic understanding of the spread of infectious diseases. One approach to combining these scales is through mathematical modeling. We conducted a systematic review of the published literature on multi-scale mathematical models of disease transmission (as defined by combining within-host and between-host scales) to determine the extent to which mathematical models are being used to understand across-scale transmission, and the extent to which these models are being confronted with data. Following the PRISMA guidelines for systematic reviews, we identified 24 of 197 qualifying papers across 30 years that include both linked models at the within and between host scales and that used data to parameterize/calibrate models. We find that the approach that incorporates both modeling with data is under-utilized, if increasing. This highlights the need for better communication and collaboration between modelers and empiricists to build well-calibrated models that both improve understanding and may be used for prediction.
Living with Legionella and Other Waterborne Pathogens
Falkinham, Joseph O. III (MDPI, 2020-12-18)
Legionella spp. and other opportunistic premise plumbing pathogens (OPPPs), including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Mycobacterium avium, Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, and Acinetobacter baumannii, are normal inhabitants of natural waters, drinking water distribution systems and premise plumbing. Thus, humans are regularly exposed to these pathogens. Unfortunately, Legionella spp. and the other OPPPs share a number of features that allow them to grow and persist in premise plumbing. They form biofilms and are also relatively disinfectant-resistant, able to grow at low organic matter concentrations, and able to grow under stagnant conditions. Infections have been traced to exposure to premise plumbing or aerosols generated in showers. A number of measures can lead to reduction in OPPP numbers in premise plumbing, including elevation of water heater temperatures.
Methylobacterium spp. as Emerging Opportunistic Premise Plumbing Pathogens
Szwetkowski, Kyle J.; Falkinham, Joseph O. III (MDPI, 2020-02-22)
Methylobacterium spp. are emerging opportunistic premise plumbing pathogens. Human infections linked to premise plumbing provide evidence of their routes of infection. Cells of a collection of representative strains of different Methylobacterium species were tested for hydrophobicity by contact angle, adherence and biofilm formation on different plumbing materials, and temperature tolerance (50–60 °C); characteristics shared by OPPPs. Methylobacterium spp. strains were shown to grow in drinking water, have high cell-surface hydrophobicity, adhere to pipe surface materials, form biofilms, and survive exposure to high (60° C) temperatures. It can be concluded that Methylobacterium spp. strains share traits in common with other opportunistic premise plumbing pathogens (OPPPs).
Modeling Temperature Effects on Population Density of the Dengue Mosquito Aedes aegypti
El Moustaid, Fadoua; Johnson, Leah R. (MDPI, 2019-11-07)
Mosquito density plays an important role in the spread of mosquito-borne diseases such as dengue and Zika. While it remains very challenging to estimate the density of mosquitoes, modelers have tried different methods to represent it in mathematical models. The goal of this paper is to investigate the various ways mosquito density has been quantified, as well as to propose a dynamical system model that includes the details of mosquito life stages leading to the adult population. We first discuss the mosquito traits involved in determining mosquito density, focusing on those that are temperature dependent. We evaluate different forms of models for mosquito densities based on these traits and explore their dynamics as temperature varies. Finally, we compare the predictions of the models to observations of Aedes aegypti abundances over time in Vitòria, Brazil. Our results indicate that the four models exhibit qualitatively and quantitatively different behaviors when forced by temperature, but that all seem reasonably consistent with observed abundance data.
Mycobacterial aerosols and respiratory disease
Falkinham, Joseph O. III (2003-07)
Environmental opportunistic mycobacteria, including Mycobacterium avium, M. terrae, and the new species M. immunogenum, have been implicated in outbreaks of hypersensitivity pneumonitis or respiratory problems in a wide variety of settings. One common feature of the outbreaks has been exposure to aerosols. Aerosols have been generated from metalworking fluid during machining and grinding operations as well as from indoor swimming pools, hot tubs, and water-damaged buildings. Environmental opportunistic mycobacteria are present in drinking water, resistant to disinfection, able to provoke inflammatory reactions, and readily aerosolized. In all outbreaks, the water sources of the aerosols were disinfected. Disinfection may select for the predominance and growth of mycobacteria. Therefore, mycobacteria may be responsible, in part, for many outbreaks of hypersensitivity pneumonitis and other respiratory problems in the workplace and home.
Mycobacterium avium Complex (MAC) in Water Distribution Systems and Household Plumbing in the United States
Falkinham, Joseph O. III (MDPI, 2020-11-28)
Members of the Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) are waterborne, opportunistic pathogens whose characteristics make urban water distribution systems and household plumbing ideal habitats for their survival, persistence and growth. Rather than contaminants, MAC are colonists of drinking water systems. MAC are normal inhabitants of natural soils and water, and enter drinking water treatment systems through surface sources. A proportion of MAC survive transmission through the treatment plant, and regrow in the distribution system and household plumbing. Once within household plumbing, MAC adhere to surfaces and form biofilms, thus preventing their washout. The thermal tolerance of MAC leads to growth in water heating systems. Stagnation does not reduce MAC numbers, as MAC can grow at low oxygen levels. MAC present challenges to current water monitoring approaches as their numbers do not correlate with E. coli, fecal coliforms or heterotrophic plate count bacteria.

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Browsing Destination Area: Global Systems Science (GSS) by Department "Biological Sciences"

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