Wong, Lauren J.Muller, BraedenMcPherson, SeanMichaels, Alan J.2024-06-262024-06-262024-06-03Wong, L.J.; Muller, B.; McPherson, S.; Michaels, A.J. An Analysis of Radio Frequency Transfer Learning Behavior. Mach. Learn. Knowl. Extr. 2024, 6, 1210-1242.https://hdl.handle.net/10919/119526Transfer learning (TL) techniques, which leverage prior knowledge gained from data with different distributions to achieve higher performance and reduced training time, are often used in computer vision (CV) and natural language processing (NLP), but have yet to be fully utilized in the field of radio frequency machine learning (RFML). This work systematically evaluates how the training domain and task, characterized by the transmitter (Tx)/receiver (Rx) hardware and channel environment, impact radio frequency (RF) TL performance for example automatic modulation classification (AMC) and specific emitter identification (SEI) use-cases. Through exhaustive experimentation using carefully curated synthetic and captured datasets with varying signal types, channel types, signal to noise ratios (SNRs), carrier/center frequencys (CFs), frequency offsets (FOs), and Tx and Rx devices, actionable and generalized conclusions are drawn regarding how best to use RF TL techniques for domain adaptation and sequential learning. Consistent with trends identified in other modalities, our results show that RF TL performance is highly dependent on the similarity between the source and target domains/tasks, but also on the relative difficulty of the source and target domains/tasks. Results also discuss the impacts of channel environment and hardware variations on RF TL performance and compare RF TL performance using head re-training and model fine-tuning methods.application/pdfenCreative Commons Attribution 4.0 Internationaldeep learningmachine learningradio frequency machine learningtransfer learningArticle - Refereed2024-06-26https://doi.org/10.3390/make6020057