Page, Lindsay C.Lenard, Matthew A.Keele, Luke2021-10-112021-10-112020-09-09http://hdl.handle.net/10919/105238Clustered observational studies (COSs) are a critical analytic tool for educational effectiveness research. We present a design framework for the development and critique of COSs. The framework is built on the counterfactual model for causal inference and promotes the concept of designing COSs that emulate the targeted randomized trial that would have been conducted were it feasible. We emphasize the key role of understanding the assignment mechanism to study design. We review methods for statistical adjustment and highlight a recently developed form of matching designed specifically for COSs. We review how regression models can be profitably combined with matching and note best practices for estimates of statistical uncertainty. Finally, we review how sensitivity analyses can determine whether conclusions are sensitive to bias from potential unobserved confounders. We demonstrate concepts with an evaluation of a summer school reading intervention in a large U.S. school district.application/pdfenCreative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 Internationalcausal inferencehierarchical multilevel dataobservational studyoptimal matchingArticleVol. 6No. 3https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/2332858420954401