VTechWorks Repository :: Browsing by Author "Batie, Sandra S."

Browsing by Author "Batie, Sandra S."

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Agents of fundamental policy change?: political strategies of the environmental, sustainable agriculture, and family farm groups in the 1990 farm bill
Lang, Helmut (Virginia Tech, 1992-09-16)
This study investigates the strategies and policy impacts of the environmental, family farm, and sustainable agriculture groups in the 1990 farm bill legislation. In spite of "genuine" interest in a fundamental policy reform, and in spite of a common agenda, the three different types of interest groups mostly opted for parochial, incremental policy demands. This self-restrictive interest group behavior and the groups' limited impacts on policy outcomes is explained by organizational limitations and self-interests of the challenging interest groups as well as by institutional protection of the American political system. This protection specifically applies to the agricultural domain with its distinctive farm bill construction. New and potentially challenging farm bill interest groups have not been agents for fundamental policy change, as the policy status quo (old policies as well as governmental inaction) is structurally protected.
Alternative methodological approaches to natural resource policy analysis: an illustration of an institutional approach to land use policy analysis
Luzar, E. Jane (Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1986)
Policy economists are increasingly called upon to participate in the institutional design of natural resource policies, predict interpret impacts of alternative the direction of future policy policies, and formulations. However, many of the forces influential in the current reformulation of these policies extend beyond the exchange oriented scope of the traditional mainstream methodological perspective of contemporary economics. In particular, the inability of mainstream economics to analytically incorporate concepts of institutional change, as well as the analytical limitations imposed by its predictive epistemological basis suggest the need for an alternative analytical framework for use in policy analysis. This study explores the potential contribution of an alternative, institutional approach to policy analysis. Certain properties of the institutional approach identified in this study, including its nonpredictive epistemological orientation, focus on institutions as the unit of observation, reliance on behavioral analysis, and ability to incorporate a wider array of disciplinary perspectives are evaluated with respect to their contribution to policy analysis. The primary analytical technique of institutional economics, development of a pattern model, is analyzed in some detail and compared with traditional mainstream analytics. An illustration of an institutional approach to policy analysis is developed to examine policy considerations raised by the farmland retention issue. A pattern model is constructed to provide the framework for the institutional analysis. Primary components of the model, the policy environment and the actors within that environment, structure the qualitative and quantitative analysis. The pattern model is designed to increase policy economists' understanding of issues fundamental to the development of natural resource policies, e.g., Why is a particular policy chosen from the menu of possible policy options?, What motivates individuals to participate in a policy?, What is the process underlying policy formulation?, and, What is the institutional evolution of a policy? The conclusions to the study are two-part: first, conclusions and policy recommendations are offered for the specific case of the farmland retention issue. Second, for the more general case of natural resource policy analysis, an evaluation of the potential analytical contributions of an institutional approach or a blend of approaches is offered.
An analysis of the effects of institutional, biological and economic forces on the Virginia oyster fishery
March, Richard Alan (Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1986)
The Virginia oyster industry changed markedly in the period between 1950 and the present. This change has been the result of a variety of forces which can be conveniently classified as economic, biological and institutional. In general, biological forces initiated a series of changes in the fishery which have had economic impacts and impacts on the institutional structure of the fishery. The biological forces have had a much more severe impact on the seed-planting, or private grounds, sector than on the public grounds sector. The dependence of the seed planting sector on public seed beds and the different regulatory regimes applicable to the public and private grounds makes it difficult to draw firm conclusions on the relative merits of alternative tenure structures. The magnitudes of economic, biological and public policy forces as contributing factors to the decline of the oyster fishery are estimated and it is concluded that the biological forces have played the dominant role in the decline of the Virginia oyster fishery. It is suggested that attention be focused on the physical and management inputs to the production of oysters and on methods for bringing forth an appropriate resource mix. It is argued that either a predominantly private grounds fishery, a predominantly public grounds ‘' fishery, with appropriate institutional modifications to allow efficient harvest technologies to be used without threatening the viability of the resource base, or a mixed tenure system could be used and with appropriate management could result in substantial revitalization of the Virginia oyster industry. However, because of the biological changes which have occurred, management, whether public or private, takes on a much more important role in determining the future of the Virginia oyster fishery.
An analysis of the relationship between sectoral activity, diversification, and structural change in the economy
Basu, Rathin (Virginia Tech, 1990-04-03)
The purpose of this study is to analyse the changes, if any, that take place in regional economic structures in the process of diversification, and the roles of sectors in such changes. Input-Output and Structural Path Analysis are used to develop indices that may be used for carrying out the analysis of these issues. A method is also developed for examining the role of linkages with respect to the fundamental structure of production outlined by Simpson and Tsukui. Using these indices and methods, the economic relationships between sectors and the economic structures of six planning districts in Virginia, in addition to the economies of the state of Virginia and the U.S. are analysed and compared. On the basis of these analyses, it is concluded that: (a) The feature of bloc independence found at the level of first order transactions in an economy is diluted at the level of higher order transactions in the metals bloc. However it persists strongly at higher levels of transactions in the nonmetals bloc. (b) The sectors of the metals, nonmetals and services blocs show a proportionate development of linkages irrespective of the degree of diversification of the economy. (c) Contrary to Hirschman's suggestion that complexity of linkages increases with diversification, the results suggest that diversification leads to less complexity in the linkage relationships. (d) The linkages of the agricultural sectors in Virginia are biased towards the services sectors. In the case of the agricultural sectors at the national level, the linkages are biased primarily towards the manufacturing sectors. The implications of these findings for development policy are discussed.
A case study of investment in agricultural sustainability: adoption and policy issues for nitrogen pollution control in the Chesapeake Bay drainage
Norris, Patricia E. (Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1988)
Nutrient loadings to the Chesapeake Bay are a source of concern for water quality agencies. In particular, excess nitrogen loadings from agricultural production activities threaten water quality in the Bay. Questions have been raised about how effectively traditional BMPs can control nitrogen loss from crop production. This study examines agricultural nitrogen pollution control from an input management perspective. Using an economic and physical model, seven production systems and nitrogen management strategies are compared in terms of input use, profitability, and nitrogen loss potential. Results suggest that several of the production systems will reduce residual nitrogen without reducing profits. However, it is recognized that factors in addition to profitability will influence producers' nitrogen management decisions. Therefore, using the results of a farmer survey, adoption models are estimated to examine the impact of production system characteristics and producer characteristics on the decision to use an alternative production system and nitrogen management strategy. Finally, a sensitivity analysis is conducted to examine the impact of alternative policy tools on adoption incentives. Both financial incentives and education and information programs are found to be important tools for influencing producers' decisions. Producers' interest in the alternative systems and desire for information on the systems suggest that agricultural research will contribute by assuring that producers have access to adequate information on the alternative systems.
A decision model to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of alternative Virginia oyster grounds management strategies
Thunberg, Eric M. (Virginia Tech, 1985-09-15)
Public and private concern over the decline of Virginia's oyster industry prompted the General Assembly (GA) in 1977 and 1983 to commission its Joint Legislative Audit and Review Commission (JLARC) to examine the State's oyster grounds management policies. In response to JLARC's findings the GA directed Virginia Marine Resources Commission (VMRC) to construct and implement an oyster fisheries management plan. The GA set as the plan's objective to achieve the greatest production level possible subject to limits of physical resource availability and technical feasibility. That the plan should be attentive to cost-effectiveness was also expressed by the GA. In developing its management plan VMRC must consider a variety of environmental, economic and political factors affecting the production and harvest of market oysters. A linear programming model developed for VMRC's use in evaluating alternative oyster grounds management strategies is described. The objective of the programming model is to minimize the public plus private cost of producing a prespecified level of market oyster harvest over a ten year planning horizon. The model includes as its activities the different aquacultural techniques used by private planters and VMRC in its repletion program. The many environmental, economic and political factors are incorporated into the model's constraints and technical coefficients. Several management alternatives are evaluated with the model. The results of these analyses indicate that without a fundamental in the oyster repletion program, even if new oyster grounds management policies are considered, there would be little change in public grounds market oyster harvest over current levels. Under revised repletion program practices, however, marked increases in public grounds harvest could be effected for relatively small increases in repletion program budget allocations over current levels.
Demand for water resources information: a conceptual framework and empirical investigation
Osborn, Carl T. (Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1986)
This study develops and presents a conceptual framework which builds upon and extends the economics of information literature. Combining observations which emerge from a review of literature concerning organizational decision processes, this framework considers the nature of the demand and value for water resource information by individuals who participate in the decision making process found within public water management organizations. Based upon this conceptual framework the paper reports the results of an empirical model relating decision participant use of the Water Resource Council' s Second National Water Assessment and hypothetical expenditures on "national assessment type information" to personal and agency characteristics in two water basin management situations; instream versus offstream water use competition in the Missouri River basin, and low freshwater inflows to Chesapeake Bay. In addition, results of a contingent ranking investigation designed to estimate marginal water information values are presented and the potential use of the contingent ranking method by agencies in water data collection discussed. Results of the investigations indicate that previous use of specific water information products and the level of expenditures made on certain types of water information are influenced by personal and organizational characteristics. Consequently, there can exist no "correct" information system and thus no "correct" data collection plan in the absence of knowledge concerning information value. Moreover, results indicate that contingent ranking procedures involving items of information may be successfully conducted in a mail survey format and that the information value estimates derived through this technique can be employed to promote greater efficiency in water data investment.
A dynamic analysis of the crop productivity impacts of soil erosion: an application to the Piedmont area of Virginia
Segarra, Eduardo (Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1986)
This study was born out of the desire to analyze the complex soil management problem faced by individual economic agents as well as society. The focus of this study, however, was on the theoretical formulation and estimation of partial equilibrium dynamic economic models directed toward optimizing the private use of the soil resource. In particular, four empirical representative farm models were formulated. Solutions to the four representative farm models showed that sizable reductions in topsoil loss, which contributes to non-point source pollution, and aggravates the crop productivity impacts of soil erosion, can be accomplished by adopting alternative support practices. Because of the change in support practices, reductions in the present value of net returns are expected, but this decrease in return was found to be minimal when compared to reductions in topsoil loss. Policy implications as well as several policy recommendations stemming from those results, with respect to soil conservation, are outlined and analyzed.
An economic analysis and evaluation of the impact of the construction and operation of a hydroelectric facility in a rural area of Virginia
Anderson, William Bagwell (Virginia Tech, 1976-05-16)
In this chapter, the recreational facilities included as part of the proposed hydroelectric facility were examined and analyzed from several prospectives. From a national accounting perspective, the Recreation Ponds Area was found to have a benefit-cost ratio greater than one if the high valuation of $2025 per user-day was used to estimate benefits o At lower valuation figures, the justification of the RPA on efficiency grounds becomes more questionable. The recreation area will have a positive impact on the study region's economy through increased economic activity and resident use, however, a complete assessment of local benefits and costs was not made. It appears that the incidence of the recreation facility's benefits and costs are such to result in an income transfer from electricity users (assuming the recreation facility's costs are reflected electric rates) to its recreation facility's uses. There is no economic rationale to justify this transfer nor to lead to the conclusion that this transfer is undesirable. In terms of the "Code of Federal Regulations," there is some question as to whether the RPA is required in the hydroelectric facility because it is separate from the pump-storage reservoirs. However, it appears that the FPC has established a "rule of thumb" requiring recreational facilities in conjunction with such facilities.
An economic analysis of low-input agriculture as a groundwater protection strategy
Diebel, Penelope L. (Virginia Tech, 1990-10-15)
The unique characteristics of agricultural contamination of groundwater requires an innovative solution, such as the voluntary use of low-input agriculture (LIA) practices. This study was conducted to identify potential barriers to LIA adoption, analyze the effectiveness of agriculture and natural resource policies designed to remove the barriers to LIA adoption, and to determine the effectiveness of LIA practices in reducing the amount of chemicals released into the environment. A survey of Richmond County, Virginia farming operations and attitudes identified current practices, potential LIA practices for the Northern Neck region of Virginia, and perceived barriers to LIA adoption. A 15 year nonlinear mathematical programming model was used to determine optimal farming practices, among 34 low-input and conventional practices, under various agronomic and policy scenarios. Two non-point simulation models, CREAMS and GLEAMS, were used to estimate the nitrogen and chemical loadings of runoff, groundwater, and sediment; and the soil erosion from each of these scenarios. The model shows that yields, labor requirements, and variable costs, individually have a weak influence on the adoption of low-chemical and organic production activities. The price of the organic nitrogen source, poultry litter, was strongly related to the use of LIA practices. The most cost effective policy for reducing Aatrex (atrazine) contributions to groundwater was a one-third reduction in surface application of Aatrex. However, there were many tradeoffs between chemical, nitrogen, and soil contributions to runoff, percolation, and sediment. The only policies which reduced all of these factors were land retirement policies. The tax level required to promote the use of a LIA practice was too high to be politically feasible, and the use of green-manure crops would require a 100 percent annual subsidy of those crops. A proposed base flexibility program caused more intensive use of conventional chemicals because of the limited number of eligible crops. Low-input agriculture has promised reductions in chemical contamination of groundwater and runoff. This study’s results showed that although that is indeed the case, there are tradeoffs between reduced chemical contamination and nitrogen and soil losses which should be considered when examining the cost effectiveness of using LIA practices as a groundwater protection strategy.
An economic analysis of nitrogen fertilization regimes in Virginia
Maiga, Alpha S. (Virginia Tech, 1992-09-15)
The loss of nitrogen from agricultural land to ground and surface waters is currently a major concern in the Commonwealth of Virginia. Farmers use nutrients on plants to maximize profit from the selling of a crop. For them losses of nutrients through inappropriate nutrient application are undesirable. Thus more effective nutrient management is beneficial for both the farmers and the remainder of society. Achieving environmental quality goals while taking into account farmers' income risk is essential when making fertilization recommendations. This study on Richmond county, uses the EPIC model and stochastic dominance analysis to compare four different fertilization regimes at the field and farm level; and then uses a sensitivity analysis to examine how the ranking of different regimes are affected by changes in crop prices. Results suggest that regime 4 which is the EPIC automatic fertilization regime has a better performance than the other regimes. However potential costs not accounted by EPIC involved at the farm level when using regime 4 may negatively affect its adoption by farmers. Thus further studies need to be done to understand and assess the performance of regime 4. The results do not show any significant difference between farm and soil type levels of analysis. The sensitivity analysis mainly affects the less risk averse decision makers, and change only the ranking of the three fertilizer regimes specified by the researcher as opposed to the automatic fertilizer option of EPIC.
An economic approach to water supply planning in southeastern Virginia
Anderson, William Bagwell (Virginia Tech, 1978-03-06)
An examination was conducted of alternative responses to the water supply situation in four cities in southeastern Virginia. Cost/benefit analyses were performed for the provision of projected levels of use and for reductions in those levels of use achieved with the use of quotas, price increases, and water saving devices. An important element of these analyses was the consideration of the costs incurred as a result of waste water treatment with different levels of water use. The levels of the principal types of water use were estimated for each city. This provided a basis for the projection of water demand curves necessary for estimating the value of water. Optimal schedules for the development of additional water sources were derived through the examination of water demand, relative to the costs of operating and expanding water supply and waste water. treatment facilities.
Economic incentives for institutional change: the case of the Virginia Wetlands Act
Carriker, Roy R. (Virginia Tech, 1976-11-12)
The case of the Virginia Wetlands Act of 1972 is presented as a problem setting within which to explore the view that some institutions provide economic services, and that pressure for institutional change result from changes in demand for these services. A general hypothesis to be tested in the case of the Virginia Wetlands Act is that institutional change to assure protection of ecologically productive wetlands was associated with increases in demand for those goods, services, and activities dependent in some way on the ecological services of wetlands. More specifically, it is hypothesized that net social benefits from preservation of wetlands have been increasing more rapidly than net social benefits from development uses of wetlands which destroy marsh vegetation. This research used a case study approach to examine the influence on residential land prices of waterfront situation of residential sites achieved by filling or draining salt-marshland. The market value of land, as used in this study, is defined within the context of an economic theory of rent. A land value comparison technique based upon multiple regression analysis was used to identify market price differentials attributable to waterfront amenities of marshlands as residential sites. Changes in this differential over time are taken as a measure of the time rate of increase in social benefits attributed to development uses of marshes. For purposes of comparison, estimates were made of the time rate of increase in social benefits attributable to preservation of wetlands. The ecological productivity of wetlands is essential to maintenance of marine species in the Chesapeake Bay. A major source of demand for marine species is the recreation sport fishing industry. Using estimates generated by other studies of parameters for the demand for sport fisheries, and time series observations on variables which influence demand for sport fishing in the Chesapeake Bay, estimates were made of the time rate of change in social benefits attributable to ecological productivity of undeveloped wetlands. Other sources of value for undisturbed wetlands were also noted. The findings were generally consistent with the view that institutional change in the case of the Virginia Wetlands Act was associated with an increase in the net social benefits associated with wetlands preservation, relative to benefits associated with development uses of wetlands.
Environmental impact assessment under NEPA: a redundant mechanism?
Balasubrahmanyam, Sunil K. (Virginia Tech, 1993-11-15)
The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) declared the Federal government's commitment to comprehensive environmental protection. The cutting-edge of NEPA is its requirement for including an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) for all major Federal actions significantly affecting the environment. Opinions about the effectiveness of NEPA's EIS requirement range along a continuum. On one extreme are those who view the NEPA process as essentially procedural and overshadowed by other environmental legislation which provide explicit standards of environmental protection for specific environmental values. On the other extreme are those who believe that NEPA provides substantive, comprehensive, and holistic environmental protection of all environmental values. Most of the research on NEPA and its EIS reqUirement has revolved around the act's procedural and substantive mandates. However, despite the proliferation of non-NEPA environmental legislation mandating the protection of such environmental values as air and water quality, land use, and wildlife and endangered species, very little attention has been paid to the role of the mandates and requirements of these legislation in the EIS process. This research effort characterizes the role of NEPA's EIS process in light of the mandates and requirements of this body of non-NEPA legislation to determine the extent to which it addresses the substance of environmental impact evaluation. Specifically, this research focuses on the following questions: • Is the body of non-NEPA legislation sufficiently comprehensive to cover the entire spectrum of environmental values making NEPA's EIS requirement redundant? • Does NEPA enhance the avenues for public participation in government decision-making provided by non-NEPA legislation? • Does NEPA address the impacts of large scale projects, public programs and policy decisions, and cumulative impacts in a more comprehensive manner than non-NEPA legislation? • Does NEPA enhance coordination and integration among Federal agencies in ensuring that environmental issues are addressed comprehensively? The study focuses on the civil works program of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Corps). As such, all conclusions are applicable only to the Corps and are not generalized to other agencies to which NEPA's requirements apply. The study involved a literature review on the role of NEPA in Federal agency planning and decision-making and the development of five research hypotheses with respect to the questions outlined earlier. These hypotheses were then evaluated through a critical review of NEPA and of the role of NEPA and other legislation in Corps activities, and a case-study of a Corps-directed EIS of the Metropolitan Denver Water Supply System. This research effort concluded that there is a relative lack of redundence among the environmental policy and requirement provisions of NEPA and those of non-NEPA legislation—what exists is a complementary, albeit tenuous relationship. Complementary, because in theory and intent: • NEPA proclaims a national policy for all environmental values while specific legislation focus only on specific environmental values; • NEPA does not contain specific standards or requirements but draws from those contained in other legislation; • in the absence of NEPA, assessments of a project's impacts to specific environmental values would be disjointed and incomplete; • the antagonistic and synergistic impacts to various values preclude individualized assessments—such impacts may not be fully addressed in the absence of NEPA; and • NEPA's public participation mechanisms as well as its requirements to ensure coordination among agencies are necessary and complementary to the focused provisions of other legislation. Tenuous, because this complementary intent has not been fully realized in practice. While the intent of NEPA was to ensure the complete and comprehensive alignment of NEPA and non-NEPA legislation, the realities of NEPA’s implementation have brought to light a variety of obstacles. These include: • inadequate guidance on NEPA compliance with other legislation; • inadequate integration among agency planning procedures and procedures for compliance with the requirements of various legislation, and inadequate inter-agency integration mechanisms; • redundant pubic participation procedures; and • a general lack of internalization in Federal agencies of the true intent of NEPA’s national policy declaration. Recommendations to surmount these obstacles include among others: developing comprehensive guidance on NEPA compliance with other legislation; ensuring that agencies’ compliance procedures are standardized and consistent with one another; developing processes whereby NEPA's public participation procedures subsume those of other legislation; and creating a fully represented Federal task force to develop and recommend detailed options for streamlining NEPA implementation.
Facing natural hazards: uncertain and intertemporal elements of choosing shore protection along the Great Lakes
O'Grady, Kevin Lawrence (Virginia Tech, 1992)
One tool of the economic planner is Benefit Cost Analysis (BCA). This model's accuracy in describing human behavior has been criticized, particularly for uncertain and intertemporal choices. To the extent this holds, the model will be inaccurate in assessing benefits of shoreline protection measures and will provide reduced insight into policy choices. From a review of economic, psychology and geography literature, three points of criticism are: - when faced with losses, individuals tend not to be averse to risk, - when faced with low probability hazards, individuals tend to ignore the hazard altogether (truncate low probability), - when faced with choices over time, individuals have different rates at which they trade off benefits now versus later. Typically, applications of BCA do not account for these observations. The main objective of the study was to determine whether these criticisms are supported, and to draw conclusions regarding government policy for the flooding and erosion hazards on the Lakes. A Benefit Cost model was formulated to describe the individual shoreline property owner's behavior with respect to undertaking structural measures to mitigate flooding and/or erosion. To test the model, property owners on Lakes Erie, Ontario and Michigan were surveyed by mail. Experimental questions, focussing on the intertemporal and uncertain nature of the hazard protection choice were developed. The econometric analysis suggested that: - individuals varied in their time preference rate, - the probability of low chance events was truncated by many respondents, - on average respondents were not risk averse, and - the above phenomena helped explain the choice to take protective action. Using a market rate for discounting in the BCA can provide inaccurate benefit estimates. Observed time preference rates may provide a better measure. Subsidized hazard insurance has been suggested to encourage self protection. Disregard for low probabilities, coupled with a lack of risk aversion, suggest such a program would not be successful. Subsidized loans for shore protection may be unsuccessful. Many people displayed a time preference rate above the market loan rate, yet they did not borrow. Information programs may be useful in promoting a better understanding of the hazards which may be faced by residents.
Free riding, contribution behavior, and public goods: the case of the Virginia nongame wildlife tax checkoff
Ferguson, James Montgomery (Virginia Tech, 1990-07-23)
This study examines the free rider effect and other voluntary contribution behavior in an actual public goods funding situation. Because the traditional neoclassical economic model of consumption behavior does not adequately explain behavior with respect to voluntary contribution to the funding of public goods. A model is developed that expands upon the traditional model and which incorporates several aspects of behavior. These aspects include strategic behavior such as strong and weak free riding, non-voting, and protest voting, as well as utility received from contributing. Most studies of voluntary contribution behavior involve the use of hypothetical or contingent markets and use the traditional neoclassical model. Therefore, a study of contribution behavior that incorporates an expanded neoclassical model including factors such as contribution utility would be desirable in order to examine actual contribution behavior. To this end, a model is developed which explains the behavior of contributors and noncontributors to a tax checkoff program. The case study is the Virginia nongame wildlife tax checkoff for taxable year 1987. A survey was developed and administered to a random sample of Virginia taxpayers who were eligible to contribute to the program. The survey results do not support the strong free rider hypothesis, although many people apparently contributed less than their total willingness to pay for nongame wildlife management or preservation. Non-voting behavior was not a significant factor, in contrast to protest voting, which was a significant reason for noncontribution. Many contributors indicated that they were receiving utility from giving to a perceived good cause rather than from nongame wildlife per se. Finally, other factors appeared to be important to the contribution decision, including the institutional setting in Virginia and assurance about the use of funds.
Growth rate differential analysis of employment and wage earnings in Virginia's sub-regions, 1960-1970
Choi, Jae Sun Sun (Virginia Tech, 1975-01-11)
The overall purpose of this study was to provide information concerning the comparative and competitive abilities of industries and regions within the State and to aid in understanding the changing levels and location of economic activity. Ninety-six counties of Virginia were clustered into eight homogeneous sub-regions by use of clustering analysis and stepwise multiple discriminant analysis. Growth rate differential analysis was performed for each of the eight study sub-regions. Industrial location patterns of the sub-regions of Virginia were examined in terms of location quotients and coefficients of specialization. It was found that the natural resources oriented industries such as agriculture, mining, food production, lumber production, and stone and clay production were highly represented in the rural sub-regions. Manufacturing as a whole was highly represented in the rural industrialized sub-regions; however, the weighted shares of the state total manufacturing employment in these sub-regions were not as great as that of the urban sub-region delineated in the study which showed relatively low representation of manufacturing. There was strong evidence that the manufacturing in the rural sub-regions was in general the rural-oriented manufacturing industries such as food, textile, apparel, stone and clay products, and furniture products. Urban oriented industries such as trade, transportation, contracted construction, services, finance and insurance and government were highly represented in the urbanized subregion. The opposite was true of the rural sub-regions. In the State of Virginia, most of the urban oriented industries were growing faster than the natural resources oriented industries such as agriculture, mining, lumber products, and food products. Unemployment was also declining in terms of percentage change during the 1960-1970 decade. At the sub-regional level, only the urbanized sub-region showed higher than State average growth in both employment and earnings. The other regions showed relative declines in both employment and earnings when compared to the State. Seven of the eight sub-regions of Virginia suffered comparative disadvantages in terms of industrial mixes showing declines in both employment and earnings. The urbanized region benefited from increases in employment and earnings due to both favorable industrial mix and wage structure. Urban oriented industries in general showed comparative abilities in urban areas, while the rural-oriented industries suffered comparative disadvantage in both urban and rural areas. Manufacturing, in general, enjoyed greater comparative abilities in rural areas than in urban areas. Performances of the sub-regions also showed similar trends as the comparative abilities of the regions. All of the sub-regions except the urban sub-region suffered relative declines in their shares of total state employment and earnings. Both rural and urban oriented industries in the urban sub-region showed successful performances, while most of the rural oriented industries suffered competitive disabilities in the rural regions expressed in terms of growth of employment and earnings. The employment projection for the year of 1980 showed that unless the present regional industrial mix for each of the regions is altered, the regional variation in employment growth would be greater during the 1970-1980 decade than in the 1960-1970 decade.
Historical changes in coastal wetlands in two Virginia counties : implications for wetlands management
Batie, Sandra S.; Niedzwiedz, William R. (Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. Extension Division, 1982-02)
Summarizes the findings of a study which determined the historical changes in wetland acres and use from 1949 to 1971 in Virginia Beach and Accomack County.
The impact of financial deregulation on rural capital markets in Virginia: an analysis of bank decision making
Markley, Deborah M. (Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1984)
The primary objective of this research was to examine the potential impact of financial deregulation on capital availability in nonmetropolitan areas of Virginia by determining whether bank behavior and performance vary by the institutional structure of the bank. The research approach combines a case study analysis of bank decision making with an aggregate analysis of operating ratios that are important indicators of bank performance. The lexicographic ordering technique is used to test the behavioral hypothesis that rural banks affiliated with a multi-bank holding company have the same operating goals as rural independent unit banks. The corollary behavioral hypothesis that rural affiliate banks have the same operating flexibility as rural independent banks was tested by using the case studies to identify the administrative level at which policies are set and the influence of local conditions on the policy making process. The hypothesis that the market performance of rural affiliate banks is the same as that of independent banks was tested by using discriminant analysis to determine the statistical significance of bank operating ratios in distinguishing between rural affiliate banks from rural independent banks. The test of the behavioral hypothesis provided limited evidence of differences in the operating goals of rural affiliate and independent banks and, therefore, the behavioral hypothesis was not rejected. The case studies identified important differences in operating flexibility, with independent bankers having greater flexibility in decision making. Therefore, the corollary behavioral hypothesis was rejected. The results of the discriminant analysis showed no striking performance differences, providing no basis for rejecting the performance hypothesis. However, two ratios were important in separating independent banks from affiliate banks. The equity capital/total assets ratio and the agricultural loans/total loans ratio were higher for independent banks. This study also identified a difference in the potential range of services offered by the banks, with affiliates able to utilize the full range of financial and human resources of the holding company to meet local capital needs. This study identified differences between independent banks and affiliate banks that result from their differing institutional structures. These differences will most likely persist in a post-deregulation environment and suggest that financial deregulation may affect future capital availability in nonmetropolitan areas of Virginia.
The influence of perceived employment opportunities on educational performance in Appalachia
Broomhall, David E. (Virginia Tech, 1991-08-26)
The purpose of this study is to analyze the process of education in central Appalachia. Persistent economic and social problems in the region such as unemployment, low average incomes, low educational attainment, and widespread poverty have defied solution. This study uses primary data from high school-aged youths and their parents' in four rural school districts in Appalachia to examine incentive structures which encourage, or discourage, individuals from obtaining education. The study evaluates a number of influences on the value that individuals place on education including community and employer influences, the willingness of youths to relocate to obtain employment, and the perception of employment opportunities in the local community. The study also examines inter-generational aspects of educational behavior by analyzing the influence of socioeconomic background, and parental attitudes and values, on the attitudes and values of their children. The findings indicate that socioeconomic background, and parental and community influences have a significant impact on educational behavior in Appalachia.

Browsing by Author "Batie, Sandra S."

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