Browsing by Author "Chen-Yu, Jessie H."
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- Analysis of Clothing Websites for Young Customer Retention based on A Model of Customer Relationship Management via the InternetSeock, Yoo-Kyoung (Virginia Tech, 2003-07-31)In today's era of intense competition for acquiring and retaining customers, customer retention has become a major issue and a key objective in modern retailing. With the emergence of new information technologies, the Internet offers new possibilities for customer retention through the management of relationships between marketers and consumers. Little empirical research has addressed the role of Internet websites in retaining customers for particular brands or at particular stores. The purpose of this research was to determine the effects of the attitudes of a sample of young consumers aged 18 to 22 toward their favorite websites on intentions to purchase through the Internet and channels other than Internet clothing websites. The data were collected using an online survey with a structured questionnaire. The subjects of the study were 414 male and female undergraduate and graduate students at Virginia Tech and The Ohio State University, who were aged 18 to 22 and non-married. Several hypotheses were put forward and results except for one hypothesis were supported. Factor analysis, cluster analysis, factorial MANOVA, canonical correlation analysis, multiple regression, path analysis, and t-tests were employed to test the research hypotheses on the relationships among the variables. The factorial MANOVA results showed that shopping orientation and previous online shopping experience affected the evaluation of general clothing website characteristics, as well as the evaluation of favorite clothing websites. The canonical correlation results revealed that the product information, customer service, and navigation factors represented the favorite clothing website characteristics and were well predicted by the same constructs of the general clothing website characteristics. The path analysis revealed that attitudes toward favorite clothing websites were positively related to intentions to search for information at favorite clothing websites, and that intentions to search for information at those websites were positively related to intentions to purchase from those websites as well as from channels other than Internet clothing websites. Attitudes toward favorite clothing websites were directly and positively related to intentions to purchase clothing items from favorite clothing websites, and were not directly related to intentions to purchase clothing items from channels other than Internet clothing websites. The results also showed that shopping orientation affected intentions to search for information on one hand, and intentions to purchase clothing items from favorite clothing websites on the other. The online information search and purchase groups were significantly different in their intentions to purchase clothing items from their favorite clothing websites. From the results of the present research, it is concluded that Internet websites play a pivotal role in forming consumers� attitude toward the websites, which eventually lead to their information search and purchase intention from the websites. In addition, consumers' online information search intentions influence their purchase intention at channels other than Internet. Thus, by establishing effective websites, marketers can retain their customers through multiple channels including the Internet, brick-and-mortar stores, and catalogs.
- Antibacterial and Laundering Properties of Ams and Phmb as Finishing Agents for Healthcare Workers UniformsEberhardt, Darlene Michele (Virginia Tech, 2004-04-22)The safety of healthcare workers (HCW) has become a serious concern; therefore, a need for protection against bacterial penetration and transmission is realized. The purpose of this research is to examine whether antibacterial finishes can effectively reduce the presence of bacteria that have the potential for penetration and transmission on healthcare workers uniforms (HCWU). The specific objective of this research is to compare the antibacterial properties (i.e., bacterial reduction), two descriptive properties (i.e., fabric weight, fabric thickness), and one durability property (i.e., breaking strength loss due to abrasion) of a 65/35% polyester/cotton blend fabric treated with two commercially available antibacterial agents (i.e., 3-trimethoxysilylpropyldimethyloctadecyl ammonium chloride) or AEGIS Microbeshield, (AMS) and polyhexamethylene biguanide (PHMB) or Reputexâ · before laundering and after 5, 10, and 25 laundering cycles. The independent variables were the treatments (i.e., AMS, PHMB, no treatment) and the laundering cycles (i.e., 0, 5, 10, 25). The dependent variables were the four fabric properties: (a) antibacterial properties against Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and Klebsiella pneumoniae (K. pneumoniae) bacteria, (b) fabric weight, (c) fabric thickness, and (d) breaking strength loss due to abrasion. Multiple Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) and Two-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) were used to examine the effects of the independent variables and their interaction on each dependent variable. The results showed PHMB treated specimens had a significantly higher log reduction against both S. aureus and K. pneumoniae before laundering and after 5, 10 and 25 laundering cycles than AMS treated specimens and the no treatment specimens. Initially, AMS had some reduction against S. aureus and K. pneumoniae before laundering; however after laundering, the reductions against both bacteria were diminished greatly. As expected, the no treatment specimen had no reduction against S. aureus or K. pneumoniae before and after laundering. The addition of PHMB and AMS increased the fabric weight of 65/35% polyester/cotton fabric and kept the fabric thickness throughout 25 laundering cycles. The untreated specimens became thicker after 25 laundering cycles. In addition, the breaking strength loss due to abrasion indicated that treatments had no effect on fabric strength. In conclusion, adding antibacterial agents do have some influence on bacterial reduction for both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria as well as descriptive properties (i.e., fabric weight, fabric thickness). However, there was no influence on durability property (i.e., breaking strength loss due to abrasion). More studies are needed to test both agents on other types of fabrics such 100% cotton and nonwoven to incorporate more treated HCWU in the marketplace.
- Apparel Buying Behaviors of Black Males and White Males When Purchasing Men's Business SuitsGravely, Terry Maurice (Virginia Tech, 1999-05-12)More information is needed to understand the Black male consumer. Although expanding in the past five years, research about the buying behaviors of consumers has tended to avoid males, particularly Black males. Retailers and marketers should understand the immense diversity among consumers if they are to market apparel accurately and successfully. The purpose of this research was to investigate Black males and Whites males to examine if differences in their buying behavior for apparel exist. In addition, consumer attributes (i.e., apparel involvement, self-esteem, reference group, social class, media) and personal characteristics were investigated separately and in relation to the purchase behavior of Black male and White male administrators and professors on a predominantly White campus. Data were collected from a convenience sample of 15 Black males and 15 White males. A questionnaire was pilot tested for content validity and reliability. Descriptive statistics (i.e., frequencies and percentages), ANOVAs, t-tests and chi-squares were used for data analysis to test the hypotheses. The following Hypotheses were formulated for this study. Hypothesis 1 stated race will affect likelihood of purchase for color of men's business suits within the buying process among Black and White faculty, staff and administrators. Hypothesis 2 stated that selected attributes (i.e., apparel involvement, media, reference group, self-esteem, social class) will be related within the buying process among Black and White faculty, staff, and administrators. For Hypothesis 1, the results showed a significant relationship between color and the likelihood of purchase for men's business suits. For Hypothesis 2, apparel involvement, social class and media were significantly related to race.
- Comparison of Color and Fabric Presentation Options in the Design ProcessJackson, Reneé Susan (Virginia Tech, 2000-04-24)The purpose of this research was to assess the current (manual) and future (automated) presentation options for fabric and color in the design process. Current and future presentation options were assessed for viability and identification of relationships between reported sufficiency levels and recommended use responses. This exploration was used to identify new and future technologies for presentation of fabric and color that could potentially aid in increasing product manufacturing competitiveness through time and cost reduction. The study also recorded if the current practices for apparel design were congruent with current available technology and estimated future technology capabilities. A judgment sample of 20 apparel and interior industry personnel, in three geographical locations (i.e., West Coast, Southeast, Northeast), were mailed a self-administered survey. The survey design employed a structured multi-part questionnaire and four fabric and color presentation options (i.e., fabric swatch, printed swatch card, 2D simulation, 3D simulation). The survey was pilot tested for content validity and instrument reliability. Descriptive statistics (i.e., frequencies, percentages, contingency tables) were used to analyze the data. The response rate was 65% for 13 usable responses. Exploration and analysis of current (manual) and future (automated) presentation options provided information about the sufficiency of the information provided and for consistencies and inconsistencies in the designer's perception of these options. The fabric swatch format was identified as the current viable manual presentation option. The 2D simulation and 3D simulation presentation option was identified for the automated category. Only the 3D simulation option was found to be viable for use in the design process. The fabric swatch and 3D simulation successfully conveyed all fabric characteristics effectively. The fabric swatch also conveyed all format attributes effectively and the 3D simulation effectively conveyed familiar, satisfactory results, saves time, and increased productivity.
- A Comparison of Consumers' Store Patronage Between South Korea and the United States: Suggestions for the Marketing Strategy of the South Korean Discount StoresKim, Sook-Hyun (Virginia Tech, 2000-04-14)Since 1997, the retail industry of South Korea has suffered a decline in sales due to the nation's financial crisis. Because of the increase of price consciousness, discount stores have become the stores most attractive to South Korean consumers. The purpose of this study was to (a) compare the differences between South Korean and the U.S. consumers in demographics, shopping orientation, perception of the importance of store and product attributes, and store evaluation, satisfaction and patronage in discount stores and (b) examine the relationships among the six variables. In addition, South Korean consumers' preferences toward the strategies used in the U.S. discount stores were examined to determine whether these strategies could be adapted to South Korean discount stores. The proposed model suggests that consumers' shopping orientation affects their perception of the importance of store and product attributes. Consumers' perception of the importance of attributes affects how they evaluate a store. Consumers' evaluation of the store then influences their satisfaction with the store. If consumers are satisfied with the store, they choose to patronize the store. A total of 234 participants recruited at Wal-Mart were included in this study, 117 from South Korea and 117 from the U.S. Results showed that there were significant differences between the two countries in participants' occupation, marital status, age, education, the perception of the importance of attributes in discount stores, and store evaluation and satisfaction. When the relationships between variables were examined, results showed that the proposed model is partially supported. When South Korean participants' preferences toward the strategies used in the U.S. were examined, they showed high preferences toward some strategies. The implication of the results were discussed.
- Comparisons of fabric care performances between conventional and high-efficiency washers and dryersChen-Yu, Jessie H.; Emmel, JoAnn (2018-08-30)High-efficiency (HE) washers use 35–50% less water and about 50% less energy per load than conventional washers. However, there has been a consistent debate as to whether HE washers perform better or worse in garment care than conventional washers. Consumers need research-based information that would help them make informed decisions concerning the purchase of a clothes washer. The purpose of this study was to compare fabric hand, appearance retention (strain removal, color change, and fabric smoothness), and dimension stability (dimensional change and skewness change) after the specimens were repeatedly washed and dried for up to 20 cycles in three combinations of washer and dryer used: (a) conventional washer and dryer, (b) HE washer and conventional dryer, and (c) HE washer and dryer. The results showed that the specimens washed in the HE washer had better fabric hand and were smoother (fewer wrinkles) than those washed in the conventional washer. Conventional and HE washers performed similarly in color change, dimensional change, and skewness change. In regard to dryer, all results except those for stain removal showed no significant differences between the specimens dried in the conventional dryer and those dried in the HE dryer. In stain removal, when a softener was not used, the conventional dryer removed more stains from the specimens than the HE dryer. However, when a softener was used, the stains on the specimens dried in the conventional dryer were more difficult to remove than those on the specimens dried in the HE dryer.
- Consumer characteristics and the moderating roles of product presentation in online apparel impulse buying behaviorChen-Yu, Jessie H.; Kincade, Doris H.; Rhee, YoungJu (2021-11-04)
- Consumer Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction in Apparel Online Shopping at the Product-Receiving Stage: The Effects of Brand Image and Product PerformanceLin, Hsiao-Ling (Virginia Tech, 2008-04-25)Due to the success of apparel online shopping, many researchers in consumer behavior hope to extend the existing consumer behavior theories into the electronic commerce area to assist apparel marketers to develop effective marketing strategies to understand, attract, and maintain their consumers (Goldsmith & McGregor, 1999). Many apparel researchers have investigated Consumer Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction (CS/D) with online shopping (Hou, 2005; Jiang & Rosenbloom, 2005; Kim, Kim & Lennon, 2006; Lee, 2004). However, most of these studies focused on CS/D with apparel websites or e-service quality, rather than CS/D with the products purchased online. In apparel online shopping, consumers cannot examine the textures, hand, or color of the fabric or try on the garment. Because of the intangibility of apparel products on the website, consumers may use extrinsic cues, such as brand image, to judge if the brand is worthy of the price and to make an inference of the product quality (O'Neal, 1992). Previous studies about brand image mainly discussed about how brand image influences consumers' perception and evaluation of product quality (d''Astous & Saint-Louis, 2005; Dodds, Monroe & Grewal, 1991) and the impact of brand image to consumers' purchase intention (Ataman & Ulengin, 2003; Li, 2004; Park & Stoel, 2005). No research has examined how brand image influences consumers'' expectations at purchase and the perceptions of product performance at the product-receiving stage, and the role of brand image in CS/D after receiving products, especially in the realm of apparel online shopping. Therefore, a study investigating the roles of brand image and product performance in CS/D with apparel online shopping is essential. The purpose of the study was to examine the factors related to CS/D with the purchased product and with the brand in apparel online shopping at the product-receiving stage. The four objectives of the study were to examine (a) the relationships between consumers'' individual differences (i.e., brand sensitivity, brand familiarity, brand self-congruity and demographics) and perceived brand image at the purchase stage, (b)the influence of consumers'' perceived brand image at purchase on their expectation for product performance and on perceived product performance, (c) antecedences of CS/D with the product and CS/D with the brand, and (d) antecedences of product return intention and repurchase intention. A model of CS/D with the purchased apparel product and with the brand in an online shopping context was proposed as the framework of this study. Different from the two stages (i.e., purchase stage, product-consumption stage) usually proposed in the studies of offline shopping, an extra product-receiving stage was included between purchase and product-consumption stages to illustrate the process of CS/D after consumer receive the product that they ordered online. Fifteen hypotheses were developed according to the relationships proposed in the framework. A 2 X 2 between-subjects factorial experimental design was developed to conduct this study. The treatment variables were brand image and product performance. Two levels of brand image at the purchase stage (i.e., higher, lower) were manipulated by two brand names and logos. Two levels of product performance at the product-receiving stage (i.e., higher,lower) were manipulated by two sweatshirts with different levels of quality. A website was developed to simulate the apparel online shopping process, and a questionnaire was developed to measure the variables included in this study. A structural equation model was developed to examine the proposed relationships and hypotheses. Results in this study showed that both brand image and product performance significantly influenced CS/D with product and CS/D with the brand. Product performance was the most important factor on consumers'' satisfaction with the product that they ordered online. Brand image at purchase played a direct role in CS/D with the brand but an indirect role in CS/D with the product. Brand image at purchase positively influenced product performance expectation; product performance expectation positively influenced the perception of product performance; and then, perceived product performance affected satisfaction/dissatisfaction with the product. Visible attribute (i.e.,style, color) expectancy disconfirmation was also found to be an antecedence of CS/D with the product. If perceived product performance of style and color was better than what they expected, participants tended to be more satisfied with the product. CS/D with the product was found to be a significant antecedence of CS/D with the brand. CS/D with the product was found to be the direct factor influencing product return intention, and perceived brand image at the product-receiving stage and CS/D with the brand were antecedents of repurchase intention. In conclusion, this study suggests that brand image and product performance were significant factors on CS/D with the purchased product and with the brand at the product-receiving stage in apparel online shopping. This study is beneficial to consumer behavior researchers and apparel e-tailers by identifying the roles of brand image and product performance in apparel online shopping. Based on the results, marketing strategies in apparel online shopping were provided.
- Development of an Assortment Planning Model for Fashion Sensitive ProductsKang, Keang-Young (Virginia Tech, 1999-04-12)The purpose of this research is to develop an established assortment-planning model identifying procedures and activities for women's wear retail buyers. This research built three assortment-planning models: (a) a conceptual moddel based on a secondary data analysis, (b) a practical-use model based on interviews using questionnaire and a set of activity cards, (c) the suggested model based on the conncetion analysis of the previous two models. Integrated DEFinition (IDEF) Functional modeling method was used to describe procedures and variables of functional activities of assortment planning and to increase the consistency of a model developing process. The variables of functional activities were determined as input, mechanism, constraint, connection, and output based on IDEF0 diagram format. Other research and pilot interviews confirmed the reliability of methodology. Experts and interviewees validated the three models. The abstract level of the suggested assortment-planning model included following concepts: (a) problem recognition, (b) information search, (c) qualitative evaluation, (d) quantitative evaluation, (e) product selection plan, and (f) plan sales.
- The Effect of Carpet Fiber on the Growth of Dermataphagiodes farniae in a Controlled EnvironmentAndes, Glenda Gilmore (Virginia Tech, 2000-12-11)Mites are endemic and allergy to mite excreta and parts is one of the most common allergies. Health care practitioners have recommended the removal of carpets from homes of people with mite allergies. Little, if any, consideration is given to the fact that some persons may benefit directly from the presence of carpet in their homes. In the allergen and mite research literature, carpets are rarely described as having unique characteristics and are generally referred to as a generic entity. Carpets, however, do have unique characteristics that define their construction, appearance, wearability, and cleanability. Seventy-two pieces of commercially available, residential flooring materials were inoculated with identical numbers of mites, Dermatophagiodes farinae, and placed in the Textiles Conditioning Lab at Virginia Tech. The mites and carpet pieces were maintained in the lab, under identical, environmentally controlled conditions for 6 weeks, then the mites were extracted and counted. On the basis of the results of statistical tests run on the study data, the null hypothesis, that there is no difference between the numbers of mites grown on the different flooring conditions, was rejected. Statistically significant differences exist between the hard floor and the nylon carpet, between hard floor and olefin carpets, but no difference between hard floor and wool carpet. Nylon was the carpet fiber that was most supportive of the growth of house dust mites, olefin was the second most supportive, and wool carpet and hard floor were similar in being the least supportive.
- Effects of Experiences and Brand-Self Image Congruity on Perceived Risk and Purchase Intention in Apparel Online Shopping ContextCho, Siwon (Virginia Tech, 2008-10-31)Retailers' ultimate concern is consumers'' purchase intentions because increasing levels of purchase intention may lead to the actual purchase, which is directly related to retailers' sales and profits. Perceived risk has been proposed as one of the most important concepts for understanding how consumers make a purchase decision (Mitchell, 1999) and research findings supported that perceived risk was a significant factor affecting consumers' willingness to purchase (Heijden, Verhagen, & Creemers, 2001). Therefore, it is critical for online retailers in the apparel industry to understand consumer's perceived risk and purchase intention so that they can develop effective retail strategies and build long-term relationships with customers. Consumers use internal information to help them in the purchase decision process by retrieving risk-related information from memory. Experience and product/brand knowledge are two common types of internal information that consumers use to reduce risks and make purchase decisions (Brucks, 1985; Engel, Blackwell, & Miniard, 1995). Studies showed that experience with previous in-home shopping for apparel products significantly reduced perceived risk and increased purchase intention in buying apparel products via in-home shopping channels (Kwon, Paek, & Arzeni, 1991; Park & Stoel, 2005; Sen, Johnson, Stanforth, Lennon, & Moore, 2000). Several researchers also have investigated the relationship between the familiarity with a website's brand and the perceived of risk and purchase intention (Laroche, Kim, & Zhou, 1996; Park & Stoel, 2005). However, the brand familiarity in these studies was measured as consumer's brand knowledge through frequent exposures, such as advertisement, instead of experiences acquired through actual purchase and use of the brands. No study has examined if the purchase experience and actual usage of a specific brand are related to perceived risk when consumers shop for apparel products online. Brand image is one type of knowledge that consumers stored in their memory and may retrieve it during their decision making process. Studies showed that brand image was the most important and most frequently used tool to reduce consumers' perception of risk (Nandan, 2005). McCracken (1989) indicated that brand image helps an individual express oneself and develop one's self-identities; therefore, consumers prefer products with an image that matches their actual or ideal self-concept (Karande, Zinkhan, & Lum, 1997). Therefore, congruity between brand image and consumers' self image (brand-self image congruity) may help consumers to reduce their perceived risk and increase purchase intention in apparel online purchases. No study has examined the effect of brand-self image congruity in apparel online shopping context. The purposes of the study were to investigate (a) the relationships between consumers' experience with apparel catalog/TV shopping and their experience with apparel online shopping, (b) the effects of consumers' experience with apparel online shopping and brand-self image congruity on their experience with a specific brand, and (c) the effects of consumers' experience with a specific brand and brand-self image congruity on their perceived risk and purchase intention in apparel online shopping context. Two conceptual frameworks were developed. The first framework was for examining all participants, including participants with and without experience with a specific brand. The valence of experience with a specific brand was excluded in this framework. The second framework, including the valence of the experience with a specific brand, was for examining participants who had experience with a specific brand. Fifteen research hypotheses were generated with respect to the specific relationships proposed in the conceptual frameworks. A 2 x 2 quasi-experimental between subjects design was used in this study to examine if experience with a specific brand (Experience vs. No Experience) and brand-self image congruity (Consistent vs. Inconsistent) were the antecedents of perceived risk and purchase intention in apparel online shopping context. In addition to the quasi-experimental design, a survey design was also used to examine the relationships among experiences with catalog, TV, and online shopping for apparel products and the relationships among experience with apparel online shopping, perceived risk and purchase intention. Data was collected by online surveys using a national sample, and 455 apparel online shoppers living in the U.S. participated. Factor analysis results showed that the valence and extent of the experiences were two different constructs, and therefore, the two aspects of experience were included in the study. The extent of the experience is about how often consumers buy products, how much money they spend, and how many items they buy (Klopping & McKinney, 2006; Seock, 2003; Ward, 2001). The feelings experienced are called the valence of the experience, and these feelings are usually described in the literature as good/bad, enjoyed/not enjoyed, or satisfied/ dissatisfied with the experience (Chen & Dubinsky, 2003; Folkes & Patrick, 2003; Mano & Oliver, 1993; Raghubir & Menon, 2005). The first purpose of the study was to investigate the relationships between consumers' experience with apparel catalog/TV shopping and their experience with apparel online shopping. The results showed that participants who had more experiences and who had a positive feeling about their experience with buying apparel products from catalogs had more experiences with apparel online shopping. However, participants' TV shopping experiences did not have significant relationships with apparel online shopping. Participants who had more positive feelings about their experience with buying apparel products online purchased apparel product more frequently, bought more apparel items, and spent greater amount of money on apparel products online. The second purpose of the study was to investigate the effects of consumers' experience with apparel online shopping and brand-self image congruity on their experience with a specific brand. The results showed that participants who had more experiences with buying apparel products online and who perceived the image of a specific brand as more consistent with their self image had more experiences with a specific brand, indicating that they purchased apparel product of the brand more frequently, bought more items of the brand, and spent greater amount of money on the brand. The third purpose of the study was to investigate the effects of consumers' experience with a specific brand and brand-self image congruity on their perceived risk and purchase intention in buying a specific brand online. The results of perceived risk showed that for all participants, including those with and without experience with a specific brand, those had more experiences with a specific brand and those perceived the image of a specific brand as more consistent with their self-image perceived less risk in buying the apparel products of the brand online. However, participants who already had experience with a specific brand perceived less risk in buying the brand online if they had positive feeling about their experience with the brand despite of the frequency of previous experience (i.e., the extent of the experience with a specific brand). In the results of purchase intention, similar results to that of perceived risk were found for all participants. Those had more experiences with a specific brand and those perceived the image of a specific brand as more consistent with their self-image had higher purchase intention in buying the apparel products of the brand online. However, among the participants who had experience with the specific brand, only brand-self image congruity influenced their perceived risk and purchase intention. Either the extent or valence of the experience with the brand did not directly influence their purchase intention in buying the brand online. Instead, these experiences indirectly influenced the purchase intention through perceived risk. In conclusion, participants' experience with apparel online shopping and brand-self image congruity were significant factors on their perceived risk and purchase intention in apparel online shopping context. Participants who had more and positive experience with apparel online shopping and those whose self image was more consistent with the brand image perceived less risk and had higher purchase intention in buying apparel products of the brand online. This study extends the understanding of consumers' apparel online shopping behavior by identifying the roles of experiences and brand-self image congruity in apparel online shopping context. Based on the findings, suggestions for marketing strategies in apparel online shopping were provided.
- The Effects of Household Fabric Softeners on the Thermal Comfort and Flammability of Cotton and Polyester FabricsGuo, Jiangman (Virginia Tech, 2003-04-29)This study examined the effects of household fabric softeners on the thermal comfort and flammability of 100% cotton and 100% polyester fabrics after repeated laundering. Two fabric properties related to thermal comfort, water vapor transmission and air permeability, were examined. A 3 X 2 X 3 experimental design (i.e., 18 experimental cells) was developed to conduct the research. Three independent variables were selected: fabric softener treatments (i.e., rinse cycle softener, dryer sheet softener, no softener), fabric types (i.e., 100% cotton, 100% polyester), and number of laundering cycles (i.e., 1, 15, 25 cycles). Three dependent variables were tested: water vapor transmission, air permeability, and flammability. The test fabrics were purchased from Testfabrics, Inc. To examine the influence of the independent variables and their interactions on each dependent variable, two-way or three-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) tests were used to analyze the data. Results in this study showed that both the rinse cycle softener and the dryer sheet softener significantly decreased the water vapor transmission of test specimens to a similar degree. The rinse cycle softener decreased the air permeability of test specimens most and was followed by the dryer sheet softener. The rinse cycle softener increased the flammability of both cotton and polyester fabrics, but the dryer sheet softener had no significant effect on the flammability of both fabric types. Statistical analysis also indicated that the interactions were significant among the independent variables on water vapor transmission, air permeability, and flammability of the test specimens. For example, the rinse cycle softener significantly decreased the water vapor transmission and air permeability of cotton fabric but had no effect on polyester fabric. The dryer sheet softener also decreased the water vapor transmission of cotton fabric but had no effect on polyester fabric, and it had no effect on the air permeability of both cotton and polyester fabrics. In addition, the air permeability of cotton specimens treated with the rinse cycle softener continuously reduced after repeated laundering, but that of polyester fabrics treated with the rinse cycle softener only reduced after 15 laundering cycles and showed no continuous decrease when laundering cycles increased. When the influence of fabric softener treatments on flammability was examined, the results showed that the more the specimens were laundered with the rinse cycle softener, the greater the flammability of the test specimens. However, the dryer sheet softener did not have a significant effect on the flammability of the test fabrics even after repeated laundering. For the polyester fabric, all specimens treated with the dryer sheet softener or no softener passed the standard of children's sleepwear even after 25 laundering cycles, but those treated with the rinse cycle softener did not pass the standard. In conclusion, fabric softener treatment had a significant influence on the thermal comfort (i.e., water vapor transmission and air permeability) and flammability of 100% cotton and 100% polyester fabrics after repeated laundering cycles and the effects were significantly different among the three independent variables (i.e., fabric softener treatments, fabric types, and number of laundering cycles). The applications of these results were also discussed.
- The Effects of Perspiration Application, Weathering Exposures, Washing Action of Automatic Home Clothes Washers, and Repeated Laundering on the Ultraviolet Protection of a Naturally Colored Lightweight Cotton FabricWong, Soak Wai (Virginia Tech, 2014-10-01)Sun protection has gained worldwide attention because repetitive overexposure to ultraviolet radiation can result in harmful effects on human skin, including sunburn, premature skin ageing, and in the worst case, skin cancer (Eckhardt and Rohwer, 2000; Sengupta and Blain, 2001). The diminishing stratospheric ozone layer, due to environmental degradation in the past few decades, combined with the modern outdoor-oriented lifestyles, are leading to unexpected levels of skin cancer (Davis, Capjack, Kerr, and Fedosejevs, 1997). Wearing Ultraviolet protective clothing is a simple way of practicing sun safety; however, regular cotton generally has very low ultraviolet protection and it is one of the most environmentally damaging crops despite of it is commonly used to make summer clothing. With the increased interest of public awareness related to sustainability and environmental issues, naturally colored cotton was recommended as it provides better ultraviolet protection than regular cotton. In addition, the production of naturally colored cotton is more environmentally friendly than regular cotton. Although several studies have been conducted on the UVR protection of naturally colored cotton, many questions regarding the factors that influence the UVR protection of fabrics remain unanswered. The primary purpose of the study was to examine the effects of perspiration application, weathering exposures, washing action of automatic home clothes washers, and repeated laundering on the UVR protection of a NC lightweight cotton fabric. In addition, five fabric property changes in the test specimen after the treatments of perspiration, weathering exposure, washing action, and repeated laundering (i.e., fabric count change, thickness change, weight change, color change and dimensional change) were included in this study to serve as secondary dependent variables to examine if the four treatment factors (i.e., perspiration application, weathering exposures, washing action of automatic home clothes washers, and repeated laundering) will cause changes in these five fabric properties, and if these changes will lead to changes of UVR protection of NC lightweight cotton fabric. Based on the purpose and objectives of the study, a split-plot repeated measures experimental design was used for the current study. In this study, the whole plot treatment was the weathering exposure, which contained three levels (i.e., semi-tropical climate without water spray, semi-arid climate, and standard conditioning), and the split plot treatments were the combinations of two treatment factors. In order to understand the effects of repeated laundering on the UVR protection and the five fabric properties, except for the control group, all test specimens were laundered after being treated with the three treatment factors (i.e., perspiration, weathering exposure, and washing action), and this process was repeated 15 times. The UVR protection (i.e., express in UPF value change in current study) and the five fabric properties of these treated test specimens were measured before laundering, and after each laundering cycle. The results of UPF value change showed that test specimens treated with perspiration had a lower change in UPF value than the specimens without treatment. The test specimens exposed to Florida condition had the most UPF value change, followed by Arizona and Standard textile testing conditions. A significant difference also found in test specimens that laundered in a traditional washer after ninth cycle and the UPF value decreased as the number of laundering cycle increased. However, test specimens that laundered in a front-loading HE washer showed no significant UPF value change. For the five fabric properties that listed in secondary objective, all four treatments significantly influenced fabric count, fabric thickness and fabric weight. However, perspiration treatment had no significant effect on the dimensional change in warp direction of test specimens, and washing action had no significant effect on the dimensional change in filling direction of the test specimen as well as both Delta E and Delta L of color change. For testing the relationship between the changes of the five fabric properties and UPF value change, Delta E and Delta L of color change had the highest correlation coefficient with UPF value change. Therefore, it is possible that the changes of these two properties caused by the four treatments and lead to the UPF value change. Future research is needed to confirm this relationship. In conclusion, of perspiration application, weathering exposures, washing action of automatic home clothes washers, and repeated laundering do have influence on the ultraviolet protection of the naturally colored cotton. The color change of the test specimens caused by these four treatments possible lead to the change of the ultraviolet protection of the test specimens. More studies are needed to confirm this relationship.
- Effects of price discount on consumers’ perceptions of savings, quality, and value for apparel products: mediating effect of price discount affectLee, Jung E.; Chen-Yu, Jessie H. (2018-02-15)Extending the price–quality–value model (Monroe and Krishnan in The perception of merchandise and store quality 209–232, 1985) and means-end model (Zeithaml in J Mark 52:2–22, 1988), we developed a conceptual model to investigate the mediating role of price discount affect (feeling aroused by price discounts) in the relationship between price discounts and consumers’ perceptions (perceived savings, quality, and value) and in the relationship between perceived value and purchase intentions in the context of online apparel products. A between-subject experimental design with four levels of price discounts (10, 30, 50, and 70%) was used. Jeans were selected as the product stimulus. Web pages were developed to create a fictional online store and to collect data. A total of 209 usable responses were collected by a research firm in the United States, and structural equation modeling was performed to analyze the data. The results showed that price discount affect played an important mediating role in the relationship between price discounts and consumers’ perceptions. When the direct effect of price discounts on perceived quality was examined, consumers perceived the apparel product with higher discounts as lower quality (i.e., a negative direct relationship). However, when price discount affect served as a mediator, the feelings created by a price discount led to a positive perception of product quality (i.e., a positive indirect relationship). By considering the influence of price discount affect, our model provides a better understanding of the effect of price discounts on consumers’ perceptions of apparel products.
- Effects of South Korean Market Liberalization on the South Korean Retail MarketHwang, Eun Jin (Virginia Tech, 1998-12-17)South Korea is a country that is poor in natural resources and capital and remains behind many other nations in technological development; however, South Korea's unique development strategy has led its economy to high growth over the last three decades. During 1997, South Korea began to experience a serious financial crisis, including bankruptcies of many of its conglomerates, a drastic depreciation in the international exchange rate of the South Korean currency, and an increasing foreign debt. Currently South Korea is struggling to compete with products from both industrialized nations and newly industrializing nations. The current crisis has occurred as South Korea has been engaged in extensive market-opening. Knowledge is lacking about South Korea's intricate and rapidly changing political and economic climate. The purpose of this research was to explore and clarify the interrelated factors that have contributed to South Korea's present economic problems, especially those facing South Korea's retailing industry. The qualitative methodology of "grounded theory" was used in this study. Grounded theory is a general methodology for developing theory that is grounded in data which are systematically gathered and analyzed. Theory evolves during the research process through a continuous interplay between analysis and data collection. This research attempted to discover the factors, or themes, that have affected the South Korean economy and retailing industry. The following factors were identified: (1) foreign direct investment; (2) the price-gap between imported goods and domestic products; (3) South Korea's trade deficit; (4) perceived over-consumption of luxury items by South Korean consumers; and (5) the chaebol, or South Korean large conglomerates. The economic factors that have led to the current difficulties facing the South Korean retailing market are complicated and interwoven. South Korean retailers will have to address these factors in the future, and attempt to find solutions. It is hoped that the knowledge resulting from this will be of benefit to South Korea's attempt to compete in a global marketplace.
- Ethnicity and Clothing Expenditures of U.S. Households: A Structural Equations Model with Latent Quality VariablesPlassmann, Vandana Shah (Virginia Tech, 2000-08-29)The main objective of this study was to determine the relationship between household characteristics and the expenditure shares allocated among various categories of women's clothing for U.S. households belonging to different ethnic groups. The study also estimated unobserved latent quality variables based on household characteristics, and examined the effects of the latent quality variables on the expenditure shares for the various apparel categories. A Multiple Indicator-Multiple Cause Model, which is a special case of the general Structural Equations Model, was used to estimate separate Engel equations for 15 expenditure shares for women's clothing categories, for four different ethnic groups. The results of the study showed that household characteristics had a significant impact on the latent quality variables associated with different categories of women's clothing, and the latent quality variables themselves impacted the clothing expenditure shares. Also, for different ethnic groups, household characteristics had differing effects on women's clothing expenditure shares. Of all the characteristics examined, annual total household expenditures and numbers of children and adults in the household had significant effects on the largest numbers of latent quality variables associated with the clothing categories for the four ethnic groups. The socio-economic variables also significantly affected several clothing expenditure shares for the four ethnic groups. These results imply that socio-economic variables impact consumers' quality choices, and presumably prices paid, for women's clothing. The results support the conclusions of Paulin (1998), and Wagner and Soberon-Ferrer (1990), in that different ethnic groups have distinct expenditure patterns possibly due to differences in socio-economic characteristics; such characteristics may signify resources and constraints faced by a household. The distinct expenditure patterns and tastes of the four ethnic groups are reflected in the significantly different effects of annual total expenditures on the expenditure shares for each category of women's clothing, as well as in the significantly different effects of the latent quality variables on several expenditure shares, for the four ethnic groups.
- A Grounded Theory Study of Systems Theory and Clothing and Textiles Theories for the Development of a Dynamic, Complex Human Systems TheoryBeach, Joni Leigh (Virginia Tech, 1999-10-15)Metatheory, a study of theories, was the focus of this research study. A qualitative, grounded theory research design was used to examine documents on systems theory found outside the field of Clothing and Textiles (CT) and the social psychological theories used within CT. Recognizing the dynamic, complex nature of the human system and its interaction with multiple other systems led to the question of: What multidimensional theoretical framework would address this complexity and provide an expanded view for research and education in the field of CT? Data were collected from documentary materials pertaining to systems theory and CT theories by the researcher in a library search of the literature. Four domains were identified from the data that were collected and analyzed. The domains were Relationship, Process, Organization, and Outcomes. Then, a holistic, systemic theoretical framework and the Human-Environment Systems model were developed from the integration of systems theory and the CT theories. The model was designed to give a general, abstract visual representation of the theoretical concepts of a holistic, systemic view of the human-environment unit. A discussion of the complex societal issue of body image and eating disorders in females served to illustrate the use of the proposed theoretical framework and model. Recommendations were made for future exploration of the use of a holistic perspective for research and educational practices in the field of CT in order to address dynamic, complex human-environment problems.
- Identifying the Small Apparel Manufacturer: A Typology of Manufacturing StrategiesJones, Michelle R. (Virginia Tech, 1999-04-16)The purpose of this study was to develop a typology of small apparel manufacturers (SAMs), firms classified between SIC 2310 to 2389 and less than 50 employees. The objectives were to (a) determine if distinct manufacturing strategies existed among SAMs, (b) develop a profile of these groups using environmental factors known to affect the apparel industry and small businesses (i.e., customer service, operations, barriers, assistance, customer size, customer location, competitor size, competitor location), (c) develop a profile of SAMs based on demographics (i.e., SIC, end-use for products, manufacturing process, type of firm, fashion position, employee size, manufacturing strategy, marketing strategy, annual gross revenue), and (d) determine the existence of a relationship between SAMs use of market strategies and manufacturing strategies. Data were collected from 146 SAMs, which represented 15 states with the highest number of SAMs. Factor analysis was used to identify manufacturing strategy factors (i.e., flexibility, environmental consciousness, product attributes, lot sizes), which were used to cluster respondents; and environmental factors (i.e., customer service, education/industry awareness, flexibility, timing, unit costs, production resources, technology/automation, consistency in sales, investment capital, import reductions). Four clusters of manufacturing strategies emerged and were profiled according to environmental factors and demographic variables (i.e., products, product classification, manufacturing processes, type of firm, type of fashion, manufacturing strategies, marketing strategies, firm's employee size, annual gross revenues). Significant differences occurred among the four manufacturing strategy groups and environmental factors. Significant differences occurred among the four manufacturing strategy groups and demographic variables. No relationship existed between manufacturing strategy groups and their marketing strategy.
- Influence of Consumer Age and Clothing Type of the Salesperson on Consumer Satisfaction with the Salesperson's PerformanceCho, Siwon (Virginia Tech, 2001-04-16)In the retail environment, the salesperson is a strong factor of influence in consumer ´s decision process because a store image and ability to build loyalty can heavily depend on the ability and characteristics of the salesperson (Engel, Blackwell, & Miniard, 1995). A consumer may fully anticipate buying, but this intention may change if the salesperson´s performance is not satisfactory. Engel et al. (1995) indicated that appearance is an important characteristic of the salesperson. Clothing is an essential part of the salesperson´s appearance and it can transmit many meanings, such as identity, mood, and attitude (Stone, 1962). Hawkins, Best, and Coney (1998) indicated that consumers in different age groups have different attitudes, values, and behaviors. The purpose of this study is to determine the influence of consumer age and the clothing type of the salesperson in the apparel consumer satisfaction process. Based on the previous literatures, a conceptual model was developed as a framework of the study. This model suggests that consumer age and the clothing type of the salesperson influence consumer attitude toward the salesperson, which in turn influences consumer expectation and evaluation of the salesperson´s performance. Consumer expectation and evaluation of the salesperson´s performance, and expectancy disconfirmation (i.e., the confirmation/ disconfirmation between consumer expectation and evaluation of the salesperson´s performance) are three factors that influence consumer satisfaction with the salesperson´s performance. Six hypotheses were generated to test this model. A 2 x 2 between-subjects factorial design was used with two age groups (adolescents and the elderly) and two clothing types of the salesperson (formal and informal). Two questionnaires with the same scenario, but two pictures of the salesperson with the different clothing types, were developed as the measurement of instrument. The participants were 120 adolescent males 16 to 19 years old and 120 elderly males 65 years and older. Results indicated that a significant interaction existed between consumer age and the clothing type of the salesperson in consumer attitude toward the salesperson. Adolescent participants had a more positive attitude toward the salesperson with an informal clothing type. On the other hand, elderly participants had a significantly more positive attitude toward the salesperson with a formal clothing type. Significantly positive relationships were found between consumer attitude toward the salesperson and consumer expectation and evaluation of the salesperson´s performance. These results indicated that a more positive attitude toward the salesperson was related to a higher expectation and evaluation of the salesperson´s performance. Significantly positive relationships were also found between consumer expectation and consumer satisfaction, and consumer evaluation and consumer satisfaction. A higher expectation and evaluation of the salesperson´s performance was related to a higher satisfaction with the salesperson´s performance. When the relationship between expectancy confirmation/disconfirmation and consumer satisfaction was examined, results indicated that participants were more satisfied with the salesperson´s performance when their evaluations of the salesperson´s performance were equal or better than their expectations, than when their evaluations were worse than their expectations. The results of this study suggest that consumer age and the clothing type of the salesperson influences consumer satisfaction with the salesperson. Several marketing applications were discussed and recommendation was given for the future study.
- Influence of Shopping Orientations, Selected Environmental Dimensions with Apparel Shopping Scenarios, and Attitude on Store Patronage for Female ConsumersMoye, Letecia Nicole (Virginia Tech, 2000-10-12)The decision to patronize a particular store usually starts with a set of characteristics or attributes that consumers consider important. Consumers then use these attributes to make decisions regarding what store or stores can cater to their particular needs. Past retail and marketing studies have identified several consumer-oriented store attributes such as price, quality, variety, discounts, store reputation and their relationship to store patronage, but these studies overlooked how the physical environment affects retail store patronage. In addition, very few studies have addressed the issue of shopping scenarios and how they affect store patronage. The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of selected environmental dimensions on store patronage using specific apparel shopping scenarios. Data were collected using a random sample of women age 18 and over throughout the United States. The final sample consisted of 151 women. Four hypotheses were formulated and tested using factor analysis, cluster analysis, MANOVA, and Chi-square. The hypotheses tested for differences in (a) importance of environmental dimensions relative to three shopping scenarios, (b) importance of environmental dimensions relative to shopping orientations, (c) perceptions of first store choice relative to shopping orientations, and (d) attitude toward first store choice. Results revealed no difference in importance ratings of two environmental dimension factors, Sensory/Layout (Factor 1) and Music/Aesthetics (Factor 2), for three shopping scenarios (i.e., a dress for a formal social gathering, family gathering, work or community activity). Significant differences were found in the importance ratings of the Sensory/Layout and Music Aesthetics dimension factors across shopping orientation clusters. The clusters were named Decisive Apparel Shoppers (Cluster 1), Confident Apparel Shoppers (Cluster 2), Bargain Apparel Shoppers (Cluster 3), and Appearance Conscious Apparel Shoppers. The Bargain Apparel Shoppers had higher mean scores on the environmental factors than the other shopper groups. With regard to first store choice, the department store was chosen most often as first store choice. Furthermore, differences were found in perception of the environment for first store choice across the shopping orientation clusters. No differences were found for the Ventilation/Sensory factor; however, differences were found for the Signs perception factor. Respondents expressed relatively unfavorable attitudes toward their first store choice. However, of those that expressed an unfavorable attitude, several respondents indicated they were likely to visit their first store choice again.