Browsing by Author "Hammett, A. L. (Tom)"

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    Adoption of Bamboo in Ghana's Forest Products Industry: An Investigation of the Principal Exporters and Institutions
    Bonsi, Richard (Virginia Tech, 2009-04-22)
    This study sought to determine the feasibility of introducing bamboo as a raw material to supplement the dwindling stock of traditional timber species for Ghana's forest products industry. First, the CEOs of the leading exporters of tertiary and panel products in the industry were canvassed to assess the current situation. Using descriptive statistics, it was discovered that the companies studied consume logs 12% in excess of the annual allowable timber harvest for the whole industry. There has been a drop in raw material availability and a 30% increase in raw material costs in the past five years. Harvest of lesser-used species in place of traditional species has also increased. Smaller companies have lost customers and are more restrained in raw material procurement. Next, barriers to the adoption of bamboo as a raw material perceived by the CEOs and institutional heads were identified. The major barriers perceived by CEOs include lack of information (e.g., on bamboo plantation management, products, processing, machines and markets) and lack of capital for investment. Institutions lack adequate information about bamboo technology and policy; they have research needs, (e.g., training, funding, laboratory equipment) and collaboration from all stakeholders. Institutions have done little to promote bamboo. Smaller companies were found to be more innovative in product development than larger companies. Companies located in the Ashanti region show higher propensity to engage in process innovation and product development. Companies appear to be receptive to initiatives that encourage bamboo adoption. In the current situation, few companies are willing to adopt bamboo but most companies are ready to adopt in the future if the existing barriers are mitigated. In the current situation, it is difficult for the industry to adopt bamboo until the government officially specifies roles for institutions and other stakeholders to make a compelling case for bamboo. Suggestions made for policymaking and change management include strategies for the creation of awareness, desire and knowledge for bamboo. Others include providing resources to enhance the ability of companies and institutions to adopt or promote bamboo, and reinforcing the change from timber to bamboo.
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    Adoption of sustainable forestry practices by Non-Industrial Private Forest owners in Virginia
    Rasamoelina, Maminiaina Solonirina (Virginia Tech, 2008-05-09)
    The concept of Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) has been promoted in the past few decades all over the world. Non-industrial private forest (NIPF) owners play an important role in that aspect in the U.S. because of their number (about 16 millions), the size of forest land under their control (about half of all forest land in the continental US), and the dynamism of their population (increasing number of new owners). This study sought to better understand how NIPF owners come to a decision for adoption (or non-adoption) of SFM practices. We developed a theoretical model combining four theories (the Value-Belief-Norm theory, the Theory of Planned Behavior, the Elaboration Likelihood Model, and the Innovation-Diffusion Process) to explain NIPF's decision making. Using multivariate analyses, we determined which elements of the developed theoretical model were significant in explaining adoption of eight groups of practices. Overall, some of the most significant predictors of adoption we identified were technical assistance, motivations for owning land and the use of a written management plan. Particular attention was also directed toward the eventual relationship between education and adoption of SFM practices and it was found that NIPF owners who attended educational programs tended to be likely adopters compared to those who did not attend any educational program. Since SFM was not limited to the US, we also analyzed the concept of SFM with the same goals as in the US, but under a completely different context (socio-cultural, economic and ecologic) in Africa, through the community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) system. We used four case studies and focused on criteria such as participation, equity (both procedural and distributive, power devolution, trust, etc) to analyze how CBNRM works on the field, what lessons to take from the cases to better ensure the goal of sustainability of the resources.
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    Agroforestry in Appalachia-Laurel Fork Sapsuckers
    Hammett, A. L. (Tom) (2023)
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    Agroforestry Preferences, Identity, and Collaboration Potential Among CAR Refugees and Host Community Cameroonians
    Moore, Elizabeth Anderson (Virginia Tech, 2013-08-13)
    For the past 10 years, thousands of refugees from Central African Republic (CAR) have crossed into Cameroon and settled in villages along the border.  Refugee influxes can produce ecological and social challenges to host communities.  While conflict is often a result, there is also an opportunity for collaboration and successful integration.  Agroforestry, the intentional incorporation and management of trees in agricultural systems, provides a tool that can respond to both social and ecological challenges by providing conservation farming techniques and increasing diversified home production of many needed products.  This research sought to understand the needs of community members for specific practices as well as preferences for social implementation of practices, using a frame of identity to help inform on integration and collaboration potential in agricultural projects.   The participatory research collected demographic data, employed a 20 point oral questionnaire, and utilized illustrated visual ranking and storytelling tools to gather information on 8 agroforestry practice and implementation preferences, identity, and social arrangement preferences among community members.  Agroforestry practices were divided between product-oriented and service-oriented practices.  We collected data from 122 individual interviews evenly divided between men and women, and CAR refugees and host community Cameroonians.   Results show that there are significant differences in agroforestry practice and implementation preferences across the sample, and between refugees and Cameroonians.  Most people felt that refugees and Cameroonians had similar traditions and needs, and that most areas of life should be integrated, however agriculture was an area that the people were more hesitant about mixing, demonstrating that arrangements and implementation of agricultural projects should be carefully designed and executed.  Those who preferred mixing of refugees and Cameroonians in fieldwork included members of all demographic groups, signifying the potential for integrated collaboration on community agricultural projects.  Results demonstrate that agroforestry projects have the potential to provide important valued resources to communities, create an opportunity for knowledge transfer and improved agricultural systems, and be the scene for positive contact between refugees and Cameroonians, leading to successful integration.
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    Assessing the Availability of Wood Residues and Residue Markets in Virginia
    Alderman, Delton R. Jr. (Virginia Tech, 1998-03-22)
    A statewide mail survey of primary and secondary wood product manufacturers was undertaken to quantify the production and consumption of wood residues in Virginia. Two hundred and sixty-six wood product manufacturers responded to the study and they provided information on the production, consumption, markets, income or disposal costs, and disposal methods of wood residues. Hardwood and pine sawmills produce approximately 66 percent of Virginia's wood residues. Virginia's wood product manufacturers produce three primary residues: chips, bark, and sawdust. These three residues comprised nearly 83 percent of Virginia's total residue production in 1996. Approximately 200,000 tons or 6 percent of Virginia's wood residues appear not to have adequate markets. A second survey was directed to all municipal waste, construction and demolition, and "other" waste facilities in Virginia. The focus of this survey was to quantify the volume of solid wood residues received at the facilities. In addition, the study was conducted to ascertain tipping fees, did the landfill(s) actively market wood residues, were wood residues recycled, were wood residues restricted from being landfilled, and disposal methods for wood residues. Additionally, the survey was conducted to determine the type of waste facility operated, the quantity of all wastes directed to each landfill, and tipping fees. Seventy-five respondents provided information on the total and solid wood waste volumes received at their respective facilities, recycling efforts, and disposal practices. Approximately 689,000 tons of solid wood, or 8 percent of all wastes, was received at Virginia's landfills in 1996. Virginia's waste facilities reported processing or recycling approximately 406,000 tons or 59 percent of the solid wood received in 1996.
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    Assessment of Cross Laminated Timber Markets for Hardwood Lumber
    Adhikari, Sailesh (Virginia Tech, 2020-09-25)
    The goal of this study was to assess the potential of using hardwood lumber in CLT manufacturing. The goal was achieved by addressing four specific objectives. The first objective was to collect CLT manufacturers' perspectives for using hardwood lumber in the current manufacturing setup. The second objective was to determine hardwood sawmills' current ability to produce structural grade lumber (SGHL) from low value logs as a product mix through a survey of hardwood lumber producers in the US. The third objective was to conduct a log yield study of SGHL production from yellow poplar (YP) logs to produce 6'' and 8'' width SGHL to match the PRG 320 requirements. The fourth objective was to determine CLTs' production cost using SGHL and compared it with the CLTs manufactured from southern yellow pine (SYP). The results suggest that all three CLT industries visited and interviewed had sufficient technology to produce hardwood CLTs. The production of hardwood CLTs was mainly limited by the quality and quantity of lumber available. The hardwood sawmill survey results indicated that, currently, less than 10% of the sawmills had all the resources required to produce SGHL. The current ability of the sawmills was measured based on the resources necessary to begin SGHL production. Forty percent of the sawmills would require an investment in sawing technology to saw SGHL, 70% would require employing a certified lumber grader, and 80% would require a planer to surface lumber. Another significant finding was the sawmills' willingness to collaborate with other sawmills and lumber manufacturers. More than 50% of sawmills were open to potential collaboration with other stakeholders if necessary, which is crucial to commercializing SGHL for a new market. The log yield study of yellow poplar helped demonstrate that the mixed grade lumber production method to convert lumber from lower quality zones as SGHL yields higher lumber volume for sawmills and at the same time reduces lower-grade lumber volume. On average, SGHL production increased lumber volume by more than 6% compared to only NHLA grade lumber production when 65% of the lumber was converted to SGHL. The volume of lower lumber grades from 2 common and below decreased from an average of 85% to less than 30% when producing SGHL as a product mix with NHLA grade lumber. This study observed more than 95% of SGHL as Number 3 and better lumber grades. At estimated lumber value, 2x6 and 2x8 SGHL and NHLA grade lumber production as product mix from a log generate higher revenue for all log groups except for the diameter 13" logs. A lower percentage of higher-grade lumber was observed for diameter 13’’ logs than other log groups from this experiment, which resulted in lower revenue. Production cost of CLTs was determined based on the lumber value to manufacture 40' x 10' plain panels with different combinations by lumber grade of yellow poplar and southern yellow pine lumber alone. Production cost was determined by assuming that lumber value contributes 40% of CLTs' total production cost. The 3- ply CLT panels were manufactured using S. Selects lumber in a major direction, and No 1-grade lumber in the minor direction from YP had a production cost of $662.56 per cubic meter, which cost only $643.10 when SYP lumber was used at referenced lumber value. This study concludes that CLT panels from YP cost 3-7 % more than SYP-CLTs at the referenced lumber values.
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    A Business Model for a Red Oak Small Diameter Timber Processing Facility in Southwest Virginia
    Perkins, Brian Russell (Virginia Tech, 2006-12-12)
    The conversion of red oak small diameter timber (SDT) into solid wood products was investigated. The objectives of this research were to 1) determine the yield of lumber, pallet and container parts, and residues from SDT and the market potential for these products; 2) determine the economic feasibility of a SDT sawmill and pallet part mill located in Southwest Virginia; 3) develop a business plan for a SDT sawmill and pallet part mill located in Southwest Virginia. The methods for this research consisted of resource, yield and economic analyses, and the development of a business model. The resource analysis indicated an ample supply of red oak SDT available in Southwest Virginia. The yield analysis used red oak SDT logs, which were manufactured into lumber, container parts and wood residues. The yield of 3" wide container parts from cants varied from 63% to 66%. The 1" nominal lumber produced was mainly 2A and 3A, 74%, and 24% was 1 common. The economic analysis utilized break even, net present value and internal rate of return analyses to determine the economic feasibility of utilizing red oak SDT. The results of the study indicated that the sawmill-only processing level scenario is not economically feasible given the specified conditions and assumptions. However, the results showed that the sawmill and pallet part mill, actual yield scenario at $35/ton delivered log cost is economically feasible. The hypothetical business model for Southwest Custom Hardwoods was economically feasible. The final net present value was calculated to be over $750,000 and the final internal rate of return was 11%. Future yield studies should weigh logs so that the yield of residues and solid wood products can be directly compared. Future research into the utilization of hardwood SDT should include yield studies of other species and other product mixes.
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    Character-marked Furniture: Perceptions, Critical Issues, and Barriers to Acceptance Among Manufacturers and Retailers
    Bumgardner, Matthew Scott Jr. (Virginia Tech, 1998-08-05)
    An important issue in the furniture industry is more widespread use of character-marks. The purpose of this research was to gain an in-depth understanding of the critical issues associated with acceptance of character-marked hardwood furniture. This information was beneficial for developing strategies to increase character-mark use by large furniture manufacturers. Although much has been said about the benefits of including more character in hardwood furniture, few large manufacturers have implemented such changes in their products. Personal interviews were conducted with product development personnel to develop case studies for large furniture manufacturers. The case studies centered on the companies' experiences with character-marked furniture. A follow-up mail survey was conducted to validate the case studies. It was found that decisions concerning character-mark use occur throughout the product development process, and involve the design, marketing, and production functions within the company. Companies that were able to fit character-marks within acceptable product concepts, considering such factors as style, finish, and hardware, appeared to have the most success with character-marked furniture in the marketplace. Conjoint analysis was employed to provide quantitative measures of retailers' perceptions of character-marked furniture products. This information was useful for determining the potential for push-type promotion. The dependent measure stimuli were full product profiles (actual wood samples and pictures), presented to respondents during on-site interviews. Retailers preferred furniture with no knots when evaluations were based on buying consideration and relative price. However, there was a linear relationship between preference and knot size, suggesting that opportunities for use of small knots may exist. It was found that character-marks were quite important to the product evaluations, suggesting that character-marks are a salient product feature. In addition to generating preference measures for tangible furniture product attributes, an investigation of the intangible product attributes associated with character-marks was conducted. Rustic, casual, and antique looks were most associated with character-marked furniture. Promotion of character-marked furniture based on environmental and natural material themes did not appear to hold much potential in the minds of manufacturers and retailers. It appears that promotion of character-marked furniture aimed at retailers will have to be based on what character-marks add to the look of wood household furniture.
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    Chinese Consumers' Attitudes Toward Certified Wood Products
    Liu, Lijun; Sun, Xiufang; Hammett, A. L. (Tom) (Forest Products Society, 2024-01-19)
    While environmental nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) have been active in China in promoting forest certification, Chinese consumers’ perceptions of certified wood products in the marketplace are unclear. A survey focused on consumers’ wood-product consumption patterns was conducted in three cities—Beijing, Guangzhou, and Shanghai—from July to August 2015. This study used data from the survey to assess urban Chinese consumers’ attitudes toward certified wood products and the demographic differences affecting these attitudes. Regression analysis was conducted to test whether consumers’ social-economic characteristics link with their attitudes toward certified wood. We found mixed correlations between these consumers’ attitudes and their demographics and positive correlations between their attitudes and exposure to environmental campaigns and environmental education. The results from this study will improve the understanding of Chinese consumers’ attitudes toward certified wood products and help producers and marketers better understand the market potential for certified products and more efficiently meet consumers’ needs. This study will also help NGOs interested in conservation to develop their future programs in China.
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    Commercial products derived from plants: Maple Syrup
    Hammett, A. L. (Tom) (2023-02-13)
    An invited lecture to biology students at Radford University.
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    A Comparison of GIS Approaches to Slope Instability Zonation in the Central Blue Ridge Mountains of Virginia
    Galang, Jeffrey (Virginia Tech, 2004-10-22)
    To aid in forest management, various approaches using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have been used to identify the spatial distributions of relative slope instability. This study presents a systematic evaluation of three common slope instability modeling approaches applied in the Blue Ridge Mountains of Virginia. The modeling approaches include the Qualitative Map Combination, Bivariate Statistical Analysis, and the Shallow Landsliding Stability (SHALSTAB) model. Historically, the qualitative nature of the first model has led to the use of more quantitative statistical models and more deterministic physically-based models such as SHALSTAB. Although numerous studies have been performed utilizing each approach in various regions of the world, only a few comparisons of these approaches have been done in order to assess whether the quantitative and deterministic models result in better identification of instability. The goal of this study is to provide an assessment of relative model behavior and error potential in order to ascertain which model may be the most effective at identifying slope instability in a forest management context. The models are developed using both 10-meter and 30-meter elevation data and outputs are standardized and classified into instability classes (e.g. low instability to high instability). The outputs are compared with cross-tabulation tables based on the area (m²) assigned to each instability class and validated using known locations of debris flows. In addition, an assessment of the effects of varying source data (i.e. 10-meter vs. 30-meter) is performed. Among all models and using either resolution data, the Qualitative Map Combination correctly identifies the most debris flows. In addition, the Qualitative Map Combination is the best model in terms of correctly identifying debris flows while minimizing the classification of high instability in areas not affected by debris flows. The statistical model only performs well when using 10-meter data while SHALSTAB only performs well using 30-meter data. Overall, 30-meter elevation data predicts the location of debris flows better than 10-meter data due to the inclusion of more area into higher instability classes. Of the models, the statistical approach is the least sensitive to variations in source elevation data.
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    East African History, Geography, and Sustainability: Tanzania and Kenya
    Coffee, Frances; Hammett, A. L. (Tom); Gibson, Lisa (2023-11-30)
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    Ecotourism: Are current practices delivering desired outcomes? A comparative case study analysis
    Matthews, Elizabeth Joy (Virginia Tech, 2002-04-30)
    Ecotourism has emerged as one of the fastest- growing sectors of the tourism market, influenced primarily by public demand for more environmentally responsible tourism. When planned properly, it has been asserted that ecotourism can integrate conservation of biodiversity with socio-economic development of local communities. For this reason, many governments and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are eager to develop ecotourism in protected areas in order to maximize these benefits. However, ecotourism can have significant negative impacts when poorly planned and managed including severe environmental degradation, negative cultural changes and decreased welfare of individuals or communities. Ecotourism should not be regarded as a panacea for harmonizing rural development with environmental conservation until the industryâ s influence on developing countries has been thoroughly analyzed. This paper shall explore whether ecotourism has proven to be an effective tool for integrating conservation and development. Through the examination of existing literature pertaining to ecotourism, I investigate the environmental, economic and social impacts of 14 ecotourism development projects in seven developing countries: Belize, Costa Rica, Dominica, Ecuador, Indonesia, Nepal and Peru. The case study analysis reveals that local communities adjacent to protected areas are often not fully involved in the tourism development planning process. Ecotourism as a mechanism for achieving local conservation and development goals is more successful when projects prioritize local involvement and control. Through the identification of trends emerging from the case studies, this paper contributes to the ongoing discussion of ecotourism as a development strategy and suggests that local participation should be encouraged in ecotourism development.
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    Engaging Students in NTFPs- Opportunities for Experiential Learning
    Hammett, A. L. (Tom); Hindman, Daniel (2023-06-07)
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    Equity Issues in Farmland Preservation
    Halich, Gregory Stewart (Virginia Tech, 1999-04-20)
    The literature dealing with farmland preservation has concentrated on program effectiveness and legal aspects. Equity issues, and to a lesser extent political issues have been neglected in these discussions. This major paper discusses equity issues involved with this topic: Basically who benefits and who is adversely effected by implementing farmland preservation measures. It relates these equity issues to both the legal and political issues of farmland preservation. It is argued in this major paper that to understand any one of these issues, all three must be fully addressed. The paper starts out by describing the following farmland preservation techniques: Exclusive agricultural zoning, large-lot zoning, fixed-area based zoning, slide-scale zoning, cluster zoning, Urban Growth Boundaries (UGBs), Purchase of Development Rights (PDRs), Transfer of Development Rights (TDRs), conservation easements, Smart Growth programs, use-value taxation, and agricultural districting. It also describes their relative effectiveness. The next section describes the equity, legal, and political issues and relates these issues to the preservation techniques previously described. This section is followed by a conclusion that brings the previous two sections together and comes up with a final effectiveness rating for each farmland preservation technique.
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    An Examination of Appalachian Forest Products Exports
    Parsons, Brigitte A. (Virginia Tech, 2003-04-17)
    The primary goal of this study was to identify value added export opportunities for the hardwood products manufacturing industry. By studying current industry practices and trends, we can better understand the opportunities hardwood lumber businesses have exploited in the past and could do so today. The study found that opportunities exist for businesses with the right initial mindset preparing them for exporting, the proper equipment, and the appropriate educational experience. Surveys of hardwood lumber manufacturers in 1989 and 2002 addressed similar objectives and helped better understand export participation of hardwood lumber manufacturers in the Appalachian Region. The objectives of this research project included determining current export experience, access and use of export development programs, key export markets, and mill production, marketing, equipment, personnel and other attributes of the region's hardwood lumber industry. Other objectives included determining if any significant changes in the region's hardwood industry had occurred, and in particular, what was mill export market experience in the past 15 years. The key was to identify key factors that lead to export marketing participation. This study showed that export market participation is growing as forest sector businesses consolidated during this period. Businesses were found to seek assistance from multiple government agencies, trade associations, and most importantly from their customers. While the largest export market continues to be Canada, little information is available on other businesses purchasing Appalachian hardwood lumber, indicating the need for more research on markets and their size. Important species for exporting are red oak, yellow-poplar, white oak, and maple, and higher grades of hardwood lumber continue to be the top three. Owning a kiln is essential to exporting, and having an above average size marketing staff was found to be helpful. The most important attribute of exporters is an open-minded management that sees the benefits of exporting.
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    Exploring the Potential of Multiple Use Water Services for Smallholder Farmers in the Western Middle Hills of Nepal
    G.C., Raj Kumar (Virginia Tech, 2021-01-05)
    Rural water systems (RWS) are commonly used to provide water to households for domestic uses (drinking, cleaning, washing, and sanitation) in developing countries. Water supply practitioners often classify these systems as single-use water systems (SUS) or multiple-use water systems (MUS). Smallholder farming communities in rural western hills of Nepal typically use such systems for both domestic and income-generating productive activities (e.g., agriculture, livestock, dairy, bio-gas, Rakshi), regardless of whether they were designed for single or multiple water uses. Therefore, this research frames both systems as providing multiple-use water services that enhance the productive activity and livelihoods of small- holders. Little is known on the factors that influence the productive activity of households in the western middle hills of Nepal and the impact these activities have on the technical performance of water systems (measured by duration of system breakdowns). This research identifies the extent of water-related productive activities in rural Nepali households supported by single-use water systems (SUS) vs. multiple-use water systems (MUS), and explores the factors that enables households to engage in high-levels of productive activity. The vast majority of households were found to engage in small-scale productive activities no matter what the rural water systems were designed to support, and more than half of them earned an income from water-based activities. Households engaged in high-levels of productive activity farm as a primary occupation, use productive technologies, are motivated to pursue productive activities, have received water-related productive activity training, and have received external support related to productive activities. A multinomial regression was used to predict the factors associated with high levels of productive activities undertaken by small farms. A hierarchical regression model was then used to examine both household- and system-level variables that contribute to the breakdown of rural water systems, focusing on the duration of breakdowns. The predictors of water system breakdowns include social factors (household involvement in decision-making during water system planning and construction and a household's sense of ownership toward the water system), technical factors (the management capacity of the water user committee and activity level of the system operator), economic factors (income earned from water-based productive activities), and geographic factors (the distance from the village to the water source). Finally, a conceptual model was developed to help identify strategies for implementing and scaling-up MUS. Scaling-up strategies for MUS begin with community participation in lo- cal government planning and budgeting. Under a new Constitution that went into effect in January 2017, newly formed local governments are to be provided with the funding and budget authority to determine local service priorities and how these services will be funded, designed, and implemented. The scaling-up of MUS would require local government officials, water system users, and private actors to develop the technical and institutional capacity needed to build and manage MUS, including the many support services needed by small- holder growers to realize its benefits. This research also examines the potential approaches that could enable subsistence farmers to become viable commercial producers. While growers are typically risk-adverse producers, this research identifies the mediating factors that could expand the long-term engagement of these producers in commercial agricultural production. These factors include adequate access to year-round irrigation, the use of improved production technologies and practices, improved access to rural markets, and improved production skills. The findings of this research will also be of value to Governmental, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and private sector actors who are looking to effectively mobilize their resources and expertise in support of smallholder farming in the hills of Nepal.
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    Factors influencing the production of Indonesian sawnwood and plywood
    Siregar, Hezlisyah (Virginia Tech, 1996)
    The forest products industry of Indonesia grew rapidly after the establishment of the log export ban policy in May 1980. As a result, within about five years, Indonesia was transformed from the biggest exporter of tropical logs into a major exporter of processed wood products. To better understand this transition, this study presents multiple regression models of Indonesian sawnwood and plywood production and consumption based on time series data from 1970 to 1994. This study had three main objectives: 1) to create models that can be used for projecting future production of Indonesian sawnwood and plywood, 2) to identify the relationship and establish the degree of association between production and factors that influence their trends, and 3) to analyze Indonesian forestry policies of log export ban and sawnwood export tax as they affect production of sawnwood and plywood. Domestic sawnwood consumption was modeled as a function of population, log export policy (no log export ban vs. log export ban), and sawnwood tax policy (tax vs. no tax). Domestic plywood consumption was modeled as a function of population, consumer price index (CPI), and log export policy (ban vs. no ban). Export plywood consumption was modeled as function of exchange rate, log export policy, and sawnwood tax policy. The consumption and production of sawnwood and plywood were analyzed by multiple regression techniques. All parameters in the sawnwood and plywood equation were found to be significant. However, price did not influence the consumption or production of sawnwood and plywood significantly. All parameters in this study were found to be elastic. It is found that, during the period under investigation (using 1970 as the base year), the production and consumption of Indonesian sawnwood and plywood increased considerably. The projection of sawnwood and plywood productions for 5 years (1995-1999) also shows an increasing trend.
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