Browsing by Author "Kincade, Doris H."

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    Antibacterial and Laundering Properties of Ams and Phmb as Finishing Agents for Healthcare Workers Uniforms
    Eberhardt, Darlene Michele (Virginia Tech, 2004-04-22)
    The safety of healthcare workers (HCW) has become a serious concern; therefore, a need for protection against bacterial penetration and transmission is realized. The purpose of this research is to examine whether antibacterial finishes can effectively reduce the presence of bacteria that have the potential for penetration and transmission on healthcare workers uniforms (HCWU). The specific objective of this research is to compare the antibacterial properties (i.e., bacterial reduction), two descriptive properties (i.e., fabric weight, fabric thickness), and one durability property (i.e., breaking strength loss due to abrasion) of a 65/35% polyester/cotton blend fabric treated with two commercially available antibacterial agents (i.e., 3-trimethoxysilylpropyldimethyloctadecyl ammonium chloride) or AEGIS Microbeshield, (AMS) and polyhexamethylene biguanide (PHMB) or Reputexâ · before laundering and after 5, 10, and 25 laundering cycles. The independent variables were the treatments (i.e., AMS, PHMB, no treatment) and the laundering cycles (i.e., 0, 5, 10, 25). The dependent variables were the four fabric properties: (a) antibacterial properties against Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and Klebsiella pneumoniae (K. pneumoniae) bacteria, (b) fabric weight, (c) fabric thickness, and (d) breaking strength loss due to abrasion. Multiple Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) and Two-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) were used to examine the effects of the independent variables and their interaction on each dependent variable. The results showed PHMB treated specimens had a significantly higher log reduction against both S. aureus and K. pneumoniae before laundering and after 5, 10 and 25 laundering cycles than AMS treated specimens and the no treatment specimens. Initially, AMS had some reduction against S. aureus and K. pneumoniae before laundering; however after laundering, the reductions against both bacteria were diminished greatly. As expected, the no treatment specimen had no reduction against S. aureus or K. pneumoniae before and after laundering. The addition of PHMB and AMS increased the fabric weight of 65/35% polyester/cotton fabric and kept the fabric thickness throughout 25 laundering cycles. The untreated specimens became thicker after 25 laundering cycles. In addition, the breaking strength loss due to abrasion indicated that treatments had no effect on fabric strength. In conclusion, adding antibacterial agents do have some influence on bacterial reduction for both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria as well as descriptive properties (i.e., fabric weight, fabric thickness). However, there was no influence on durability property (i.e., breaking strength loss due to abrasion). More studies are needed to test both agents on other types of fabrics such 100% cotton and nonwoven to incorporate more treated HCWU in the marketplace.
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    Apparel Buying Behaviors of Black Males and White Males When Purchasing Men's Business Suits
    Gravely, Terry Maurice (Virginia Tech, 1999-05-12)
    More information is needed to understand the Black male consumer. Although expanding in the past five years, research about the buying behaviors of consumers has tended to avoid males, particularly Black males. Retailers and marketers should understand the immense diversity among consumers if they are to market apparel accurately and successfully. The purpose of this research was to investigate Black males and Whites males to examine if differences in their buying behavior for apparel exist. In addition, consumer attributes (i.e., apparel involvement, self-esteem, reference group, social class, media) and personal characteristics were investigated separately and in relation to the purchase behavior of Black male and White male administrators and professors on a predominantly White campus. Data were collected from a convenience sample of 15 Black males and 15 White males. A questionnaire was pilot tested for content validity and reliability. Descriptive statistics (i.e., frequencies and percentages), ANOVAs, t-tests and chi-squares were used for data analysis to test the hypotheses. The following Hypotheses were formulated for this study. Hypothesis 1 stated race will affect likelihood of purchase for color of men's business suits within the buying process among Black and White faculty, staff and administrators. Hypothesis 2 stated that selected attributes (i.e., apparel involvement, media, reference group, self-esteem, social class) will be related within the buying process among Black and White faculty, staff, and administrators. For Hypothesis 1, the results showed a significant relationship between color and the likelihood of purchase for men's business suits. For Hypothesis 2, apparel involvement, social class and media were significantly related to race.
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    Apparel Industry Definitions: Copying, Knocking-off, Counterfeiting
    Quesenberry, Peggy Phillips (Virginia Tech, 2014-10-01)
    Ideas for ways to use textiles and other materials as body coverings, or as a form of apparel decoration, as well as protection, continued to evolve throughout history. More complex ideas and outcomes developed with the advent of weaving, and rectangular shapes were draped in folds, tied, or wrapped around the body. An accepted practice in the apparel industry is seeking inspiration for ideas from a variety of people, places, and things. This practice of seeking inspiration from the environment leads to the question of whether copying is inherent within the apparel industry. History of costume research and study indicate that it is generally accepted that people wear differing apparel for each season of the year, with some repeat, or copying, in the same season in subsequent years. The terms counterfeiting, knocking-off, and copying are often used interchangeably, but further exploration of the terms show they are not the same. Counterfeiting has become, and remains a hot topic in the apparel industry, particularly in product development. Some designers have begun to challenge and demand their work be protected in some manner such as copyrights, trademarks, or patents. Questions and concerns abound among product developers. This study was exploratory in nature, seeking a definition, and identifying a specific point in the product development process, when a certain activity (i.e., copying) is more likely to be performed. Therefore, qualitative methods were used to achieve the objectives of the research. This research took a cross-sectional approach within a qualitative design study when selecting the participants. The cross-sections for the participants of this study were those participants in positions of direct influence on apparel product development. Analyzing the perceptions of the participants from the cross-sections in detail, inferences were made about the industry definition and method of copying, time of occurrence, and those most likely involved in decision making. The instrument for the study was an online survey with open-ended questions and fixed-response questions. Of the 20 participants, 11 accessed the survey with 10 choosing to participate. While some degree of similarity was observed in several of the definitions of copying, such as taking existing products to create new products, there was distinction when participants used phrases such as copying 'without changing anything' to 'copying the idea and concept.' Participants' definition of knocking-off can be summarized as a copy with variation in price point. Participants noted that the process of counterfeiting was an unauthorized or illegal copy of a product and often included copying labels or logos. Key reasons for copying products were reported as following trends and speed to market.
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    Apparel retail buyers' attitude and acceptance behavior toward manufacturer's promotional support: effects of retail organization's orientation, size, and degree of centralization
    Park, Haesun (Virginia Tech, 1996)
    Manufacturer's promotional support is an important factor in buyers' selection of their suppliers. Research into retail customers' needs examined apparel retail buyers' attitude and acceptance behavior toward manufacturer's promotional support, and the effects of retail organization's characteristics (i.e., orientation, size, and degree of centralization) on the attitude and acceptance behavior toward the promotional support. Promotional support items were categorized into four through literature review (i.e., promotional materials, monetary support, selling aids, motivation of salespeople). Differences between importance perception and offering frequency of promotional support, and differences between importance perception and acceptance and cooperation level with promotional support were also examined. A mail survey (postal or fax) was designed to collect data. Apparel retail buyers from one hundred apparel retail organizations with annual sales volume over $100 million, randomly selected from Hoovers Online Search on the internet, participated in the survey. Forty-eight organizations agreed to participate. A total of 397 questionnaires were mailed, with follow-up phone calls to increase the response rate. Data analysis was conducted on the 137 questionnaires out of 141questionnaires returned (response rate: 35.52%). Pearson's correlation coefficient revealed a positive relationship between importance perception and offering frequency of promotional support, and between importance perception and acceptance or cooperation level. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed the existence of significant differences among levels of orientation and degree of centralization in apparel retail buyers' attitude and acceptance behavior toward three promotional support components (i.e., promotional materials, selling aids, motivating salespeople). Specific differences in attitude and acceptance behavior among levels of organizational variables are discussed, and some recommendations for apparel manufacturers' promotional support strategies to their specific retail customers are proposed.
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    A classification of the dress of heavy metal music groups using content analysis
    Allen, Tammy Rene (Virginia Tech, 1993-09-11)
    The research was a qualitative study of the dress of heavy metal (HM) music groups using content analysis. The purpose was to examine dress characteristics of a representative random sample of HM music groups. The objectives were (a) to develop a classification system for HM music groups based on time and subgenre, (b) to identify music groups within each cell (i.e., time and subgenre) of the classification system, and (c) to identify dress characteristics of a representative random sample of the music groups. The subjects in the study were HM music groups as pictured on albums. The variables were the selected items of dress and the classification of the groups by time and subgenre. A classification system was developed and used for the selection of subjects. Using the HM Dress Classification Instrument developed by the researcher, specific dress characteristics of twenty-four HM music groups were identified. This data was compiled in tabular format. Among the twenty-four HM groups, the predominant clothing was a black woven shirt and black leather/suede pants. Clothing trim included studs, motifs/designs, words and fringe. No visible jewelry was predominant. The primary shoes observed were western boots. Straight, shoulder-length black or blond hair with no head covering was predominant. Beards, makeup, tattooing, and other forms of corporal adornment were observed. Although some dress categories were dominated by single items, changes were observed across time and subgenres. The data indicated rejection of the two null hypotheses.
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    Clothing behavior, body cathexis, and appearance management of women enrolled in a commercial weight loss program
    Robinson, Tammy R. (Virginia Tech, 2003-05-09)
    The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between appearance management, created appearance, body cathexis, and clothing behavior for a group of women enrolled in a commercial weight loss program. Subjects were 171 females enrolled in Weight Watchers® programs in Christiansburg, Virginia. No previous research had investigated clothing behavior, appearance management, created appearance, and body cathexis of women in a weight loss program. Because clothing is such an integral part of the self, it was important to examine the influences and contributions of this variable to weight loss. The proposed research model hypothesized that the following variables would be related: appearance management and created appearance, created appearance and body cathexis, body cathexis and current clothing behavior, and created appearance and current clothing behavior. Other hypotheses tested the relationships between current clothing behavior and prior clothing and between demographics and the following variables: appearance management, created appearance, body cathexis, and current clothing behavior. Results indicated that a greater percentage of weight loss was related to a higher average body cathexis score. Respondents wore clothing that emphasized body parts with which they were more satisfied, and wore clothing that did not emphasize body parts with which they were less satisfied. Results indicated that after weight loss, respondents wore clothing that would emphasize their body with more frequency and also wore clothing that would hide or camouflage their body with less frequency. Current clothing behavior also seemed to be influenced by age and marital status. Findings from the present study provide new information about how women choose clothing based on the level of satisfaction with their bodies and where they have experienced a weight loss. The findings also provide information about the types and styles of clothing that women choose as a result of losing weight. Women in weight loss programs can use clothing to enhance their appearance and improve their body image. By increasing body satisfaction and feeling better about their bodies as they are going through the weight loss program, they may be more likely to continue with their efforts and be more successful in their weight loss.
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    Comparison of Color and Fabric Presentation Options in the Design Process
    Jackson, Reneé Susan (Virginia Tech, 2000-04-24)
    The purpose of this research was to assess the current (manual) and future (automated) presentation options for fabric and color in the design process. Current and future presentation options were assessed for viability and identification of relationships between reported sufficiency levels and recommended use responses. This exploration was used to identify new and future technologies for presentation of fabric and color that could potentially aid in increasing product manufacturing competitiveness through time and cost reduction. The study also recorded if the current practices for apparel design were congruent with current available technology and estimated future technology capabilities. A judgment sample of 20 apparel and interior industry personnel, in three geographical locations (i.e., West Coast, Southeast, Northeast), were mailed a self-administered survey. The survey design employed a structured multi-part questionnaire and four fabric and color presentation options (i.e., fabric swatch, printed swatch card, 2D simulation, 3D simulation). The survey was pilot tested for content validity and instrument reliability. Descriptive statistics (i.e., frequencies, percentages, contingency tables) were used to analyze the data. The response rate was 65% for 13 usable responses. Exploration and analysis of current (manual) and future (automated) presentation options provided information about the sufficiency of the information provided and for consistencies and inconsistencies in the designer's perception of these options. The fabric swatch format was identified as the current viable manual presentation option. The 2D simulation and 3D simulation presentation option was identified for the automated category. Only the 3D simulation option was found to be viable for use in the design process. The fabric swatch and 3D simulation successfully conveyed all fabric characteristics effectively. The fabric swatch also conveyed all format attributes effectively and the 3D simulation effectively conveyed familiar, satisfactory results, saves time, and increased productivity.
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    A concurrent engineering framework for apparel manufacture
    Regan, Cynthia Lee (Virginia Tech, 1997)
    The purpose of the present study was to develop a concurrent engineering (CE) apparel framework. Sequential manufacturing is the traditional production method for apparel manufacture. Sequential design and product development impact manufacturing more than any other process because design decisions can have costly production implications. To improve this process, other industries have implemented CE. CE is the concurrent design of products and their related manufacture and support processes. Reported CE benefits are time, cost, and quality improvements. A review of CE literature showed no application of CE for apparel manufacture. The present study was an interpretational qualitative case study of apparel manufacturers with two phases: Phase One was a descriptive documentation mapping the as is environment. Phase Two was the development of a to be environment that integrated apparel design with product development. The apparel manufacturer sample was located in U.S. representing multiple merchandise classifications. Sample size for Phase One was 72 subjects and 36 subjects for Phase Two. A triangulated data collection method combined interviewing, reading company documents, observing, and giving questionnaires to focus groups. Phase One results and discussion narrative are 101 IDEF₀ analytic graphic diagrams and identification of process performance weaknesses for the as is environment. IDEF₀ diagrams include: create apparel line, develop colors and prints, implement fabric and special operations, set production specifications, and produce samples. Findings documented the as is environment as a sequential process with rework cycles occurring in all functional areas. The as is environment had time-to-market delays, excess cost, and decreased process quality. Phase Two results and discussion for the to be environment was the development of a CE apparel framework. The findings are illustrated in 80 IDEF₀ diagrams with reorganization of apparel activities, inclusion of multi-disciplinary design teams, and use of enabling technology. The to be environment findings show apparel activities did not remain sequential. Apparel activity movement supports the CE design maturity curve concept in which apparel design decisions moved later, and manufacturing and costing decisions are made earlier. An apparel associate focus group indicated that the to be environment could improve moderately for time-to-market, excess cost, and process quality.
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    Critical Indicators for Apparel SMEs Performance; Market Orientation, Learning Orientation, and Innovation
    Ji, Jeong Sook (Virginia Tech, 2008-05-02)
    The purpose of this study was to generalize the findings about market orientation, learning orientation, innovation and performance to the textile and apparel context in South Korea, specifically to SMEs, and, in addition, to investigate the role of informal relationships in SMEs within the presence of these other variables. This study postulates that market orientation, learning orientation, and innovation are related to performance. This study conducted a survey in South Korea, using a paper-and-pencil questionnaire, to determine the relationship of various management related variables with the SMEs' performance. Of the 200 questionnaires that were distributed, 183 were returned and178 were completed and usable for the research. Results of this study showed that components of market orientation and learning orientation were both significantly related to innovation and some components along with innovation were significantly related to South Korean apparel SMEs' performance. The proposed relationship of these factors to performance could be generalized to SMEs in the apparel industry, within the context of South Korea.
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    Developing a Retail Buying Model Based on the Use of Assortment Decision Factors
    Bahng, Youngjin (Virginia Tech, 2011-06-03)
    As end-consumers are surrounded by a tremendous number of multi-channel retailers and their products, clothing retailers are exposed to numerous clothing samples with a variety of styles in various price ranges, offered by onshore and offshore manufacturers. Although manufacturers or vendors offer well-salable products, a retail business may not be successful in maximizing profits without a strategic retail buying planning process. The purpose of this study is to develop a retail buying model for clothing retailers. In order to test the variables that comprise the retail buying model, the objectives of the study are to: (a) investigate important assortment decision factors for clothing retail buying; (b) segment clothing retail buyers by their decision factor uses; (c) characterize the segments by buyer (i.e., age, gender, education, experience, employment) and company demographics (i.e., types of products, type of store, size of the firm); (d) examine the relationship between these demographic variables and the factor uses; (e) examine the influence of the factor uses on the success of assortment planning; (f) examine the influence of the success of assortment planning on firm performance; and, (g) examine the influence of extraneous variables (i.e., retail environment) on firm performance. After two pilot tests, adjustments were made to wording in the questionnaire. Data collection, using a pen and paper questionnaire, was conducted using convenience and snowball sampling. Through this method, 425 clothing retail buyers, merchandisers, or store owners, who are involved assortment planning and buying in South Korea, participated in the survey. A variety of statistical analyses was used to test the hypotheses. For testing Hypothesis 1, the mean and standard deviation of the assortment factor items were used to rank important decision factors for assortment planning. To test Hypothesis 2, retail buyers were segmented by their assortment decision factor use through exploratory factor analysis and K-means cluster analysis. For Hypothesis 3, Chi-square was utilized to characterize the segments of buyers and merchandisers from Hypothesis 2, using buyer and company demographics. For Hypothesis 4, Pearson and Spearman Correlations were used to test if correlations exist between buyer and company demographic variables and decision factor use. For Hypotheses 5 to 7, a Structural Equation Model (SEM) was developed to test if causal relationships exist among assortment decision factor use, the success of assortment planning, firm performance, and retail environment. All Hypotheses were fully or partially supported. Based on the results of hypotheses testing, the finalized retail buying model was developed. The finalized retail buying model based on the use of assortment decision factors will benefit retailers by helping retail buyers to analyze available information and identify the need for additional decision factors. Due to the use of convenience and snowball sampling as well as the limited geographic location of the survey, the finding of the current study cannot be generalized to the general population of clothing retail buyers. Future studies using probability sampling methods, utilizing qualitative methods, and/or examining in different countries, are suggested to verify the current findings and confirm the validity of the framework.
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    The Development of a Conceptual Framework for Identifying Functional, Expressive, Aesthetic, and Regulatory Needs for Snowboarding Helmets
    Chae, Myung-Hee (Virginia Tech, 2006-11-10)
    The purpose of this research was to identify the design characteristics and attitudes that impact the use of snowboarding helmets and to test statistically a proposed conceptual framework for identifying perceived importance of functional, expressive, aesthetic, and regulatory (FEAR) needs of snowboarding helmets for current snowboarders. Data for this study was collected online. The final sample was composed of 391 participants, which represented a 13.67% response rate. Multiple comparisons were used to examine mean differences among the FEAR variables, as well as attitudes toward helmet use. A multiple linear regression was used to test four proposed hypotheses. The results of hypotheses revealed that there was an impact between attitudes toward helmet use and perceived importance of functional needs, but this relationship depended on the level of expressive needs, aesthetic needs, and helmet usage. The typical impact of functional needs on attitudes toward helmet use was positive (slope = .013) when all variables were at their respective means (Hypothesis 1). Hypothesis 2 tested to see if there was an impact between attitudes toward helmet use and perceived importance of expressive needs, but again, this relationship depended on the level of functional needs and helmet usage. The typical impact of expressive needs on attitudes toward helmet use was positive (slope = .014) when all variables were at their respective means. Similarly, the impact between attitudes toward helmet use and the perceived importance of aesthetic needs was dependent on the level of functional needs and helmet usage. The impact of aesthetic needs on attitudes toward helmet use was typically negative (slope = -.012) when all variables were at their respective means (Hypothesis 3). Finally, Hypothesis 4 looked at the impact between attitudes toward helmet use and the perceived importance of regulatory needs. Unlike the other three hypotheses, this relationship did not depend on any other variables. The impact of regulatory needs on attitudes toward helmet use was positive, and the strength of association was .010. Although hypothesis 1-3 were substantially supported, and hypothesis 4 was fully supported, from a statistical point of view, the interaction effects between the independent variables (i.e., FEA needs) and the covariate (i.e., helmet usage) limit the findings, so we can not really state that the hypotheses were supported. However, based on information obtained from the respondents in this study, the application of a FEAR needs assessment of snowboarding helmets could help to enhance the overall performance of snowboarders. In other words, the improvement of helmet functionality, expressive qualities, aesthetic attributes and regulatory needs would provide a more enjoyable snow activity to participants. Thus, the conceptual framework of the perceived importance of FEAR needs would be acceptable to understand the attitudes toward helmet use among snowboarders.
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    Development of an Assortment Planning Model for Fashion Sensitive Products
    Kang, Keang-Young (Virginia Tech, 1999-04-12)
    The purpose of this research is to develop an established assortment-planning model identifying procedures and activities for women's wear retail buyers. This research built three assortment-planning models: (a) a conceptual moddel based on a secondary data analysis, (b) a practical-use model based on interviews using questionnaire and a set of activity cards, (c) the suggested model based on the conncetion analysis of the previous two models. Integrated DEFinition (IDEF) Functional modeling method was used to describe procedures and variables of functional activities of assortment planning and to increase the consistency of a model developing process. The variables of functional activities were determined as input, mechanism, constraint, connection, and output based on IDEF0 diagram format. Other research and pilot interviews confirmed the reliability of methodology. Experts and interviewees validated the three models. The abstract level of the suggested assortment-planning model included following concepts: (a) problem recognition, (b) information search, (c) qualitative evaluation, (d) quantitative evaluation, (e) product selection plan, and (f) plan sales.
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    Effects of Experiences and Brand-Self Image Congruity on Perceived Risk and Purchase Intention in Apparel Online Shopping Context
    Cho, Siwon (Virginia Tech, 2008-10-31)
    Retailers' ultimate concern is consumers'' purchase intentions because increasing levels of purchase intention may lead to the actual purchase, which is directly related to retailers' sales and profits. Perceived risk has been proposed as one of the most important concepts for understanding how consumers make a purchase decision (Mitchell, 1999) and research findings supported that perceived risk was a significant factor affecting consumers' willingness to purchase (Heijden, Verhagen, & Creemers, 2001). Therefore, it is critical for online retailers in the apparel industry to understand consumer's perceived risk and purchase intention so that they can develop effective retail strategies and build long-term relationships with customers. Consumers use internal information to help them in the purchase decision process by retrieving risk-related information from memory. Experience and product/brand knowledge are two common types of internal information that consumers use to reduce risks and make purchase decisions (Brucks, 1985; Engel, Blackwell, & Miniard, 1995). Studies showed that experience with previous in-home shopping for apparel products significantly reduced perceived risk and increased purchase intention in buying apparel products via in-home shopping channels (Kwon, Paek, & Arzeni, 1991; Park & Stoel, 2005; Sen, Johnson, Stanforth, Lennon, & Moore, 2000). Several researchers also have investigated the relationship between the familiarity with a website's brand and the perceived of risk and purchase intention (Laroche, Kim, & Zhou, 1996; Park & Stoel, 2005). However, the brand familiarity in these studies was measured as consumer's brand knowledge through frequent exposures, such as advertisement, instead of experiences acquired through actual purchase and use of the brands. No study has examined if the purchase experience and actual usage of a specific brand are related to perceived risk when consumers shop for apparel products online. Brand image is one type of knowledge that consumers stored in their memory and may retrieve it during their decision making process. Studies showed that brand image was the most important and most frequently used tool to reduce consumers' perception of risk (Nandan, 2005). McCracken (1989) indicated that brand image helps an individual express oneself and develop one's self-identities; therefore, consumers prefer products with an image that matches their actual or ideal self-concept (Karande, Zinkhan, & Lum, 1997). Therefore, congruity between brand image and consumers' self image (brand-self image congruity) may help consumers to reduce their perceived risk and increase purchase intention in apparel online purchases. No study has examined the effect of brand-self image congruity in apparel online shopping context. The purposes of the study were to investigate (a) the relationships between consumers' experience with apparel catalog/TV shopping and their experience with apparel online shopping, (b) the effects of consumers' experience with apparel online shopping and brand-self image congruity on their experience with a specific brand, and (c) the effects of consumers' experience with a specific brand and brand-self image congruity on their perceived risk and purchase intention in apparel online shopping context. Two conceptual frameworks were developed. The first framework was for examining all participants, including participants with and without experience with a specific brand. The valence of experience with a specific brand was excluded in this framework. The second framework, including the valence of the experience with a specific brand, was for examining participants who had experience with a specific brand. Fifteen research hypotheses were generated with respect to the specific relationships proposed in the conceptual frameworks. A 2 x 2 quasi-experimental between subjects design was used in this study to examine if experience with a specific brand (Experience vs. No Experience) and brand-self image congruity (Consistent vs. Inconsistent) were the antecedents of perceived risk and purchase intention in apparel online shopping context. In addition to the quasi-experimental design, a survey design was also used to examine the relationships among experiences with catalog, TV, and online shopping for apparel products and the relationships among experience with apparel online shopping, perceived risk and purchase intention. Data was collected by online surveys using a national sample, and 455 apparel online shoppers living in the U.S. participated. Factor analysis results showed that the valence and extent of the experiences were two different constructs, and therefore, the two aspects of experience were included in the study. The extent of the experience is about how often consumers buy products, how much money they spend, and how many items they buy (Klopping & McKinney, 2006; Seock, 2003; Ward, 2001). The feelings experienced are called the valence of the experience, and these feelings are usually described in the literature as good/bad, enjoyed/not enjoyed, or satisfied/ dissatisfied with the experience (Chen & Dubinsky, 2003; Folkes & Patrick, 2003; Mano & Oliver, 1993; Raghubir & Menon, 2005). The first purpose of the study was to investigate the relationships between consumers' experience with apparel catalog/TV shopping and their experience with apparel online shopping. The results showed that participants who had more experiences and who had a positive feeling about their experience with buying apparel products from catalogs had more experiences with apparel online shopping. However, participants' TV shopping experiences did not have significant relationships with apparel online shopping. Participants who had more positive feelings about their experience with buying apparel products online purchased apparel product more frequently, bought more apparel items, and spent greater amount of money on apparel products online. The second purpose of the study was to investigate the effects of consumers' experience with apparel online shopping and brand-self image congruity on their experience with a specific brand. The results showed that participants who had more experiences with buying apparel products online and who perceived the image of a specific brand as more consistent with their self image had more experiences with a specific brand, indicating that they purchased apparel product of the brand more frequently, bought more items of the brand, and spent greater amount of money on the brand. The third purpose of the study was to investigate the effects of consumers' experience with a specific brand and brand-self image congruity on their perceived risk and purchase intention in buying a specific brand online. The results of perceived risk showed that for all participants, including those with and without experience with a specific brand, those had more experiences with a specific brand and those perceived the image of a specific brand as more consistent with their self-image perceived less risk in buying the apparel products of the brand online. However, participants who already had experience with a specific brand perceived less risk in buying the brand online if they had positive feeling about their experience with the brand despite of the frequency of previous experience (i.e., the extent of the experience with a specific brand). In the results of purchase intention, similar results to that of perceived risk were found for all participants. Those had more experiences with a specific brand and those perceived the image of a specific brand as more consistent with their self-image had higher purchase intention in buying the apparel products of the brand online. However, among the participants who had experience with the specific brand, only brand-self image congruity influenced their perceived risk and purchase intention. Either the extent or valence of the experience with the brand did not directly influence their purchase intention in buying the brand online. Instead, these experiences indirectly influenced the purchase intention through perceived risk. In conclusion, participants' experience with apparel online shopping and brand-self image congruity were significant factors on their perceived risk and purchase intention in apparel online shopping context. Participants who had more and positive experience with apparel online shopping and those whose self image was more consistent with the brand image perceived less risk and had higher purchase intention in buying apparel products of the brand online. This study extends the understanding of consumers' apparel online shopping behavior by identifying the roles of experiences and brand-self image congruity in apparel online shopping context. Based on the findings, suggestions for marketing strategies in apparel online shopping were provided.
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    The Effects of Perspiration Application, Weathering Exposures, Washing Action of Automatic Home Clothes Washers, and Repeated Laundering on the Ultraviolet Protection of a Naturally Colored Lightweight Cotton Fabric
    Wong, Soak Wai (Virginia Tech, 2014-10-01)
    Sun protection has gained worldwide attention because repetitive overexposure to ultraviolet radiation can result in harmful effects on human skin, including sunburn, premature skin ageing, and in the worst case, skin cancer (Eckhardt and Rohwer, 2000; Sengupta and Blain, 2001). The diminishing stratospheric ozone layer, due to environmental degradation in the past few decades, combined with the modern outdoor-oriented lifestyles, are leading to unexpected levels of skin cancer (Davis, Capjack, Kerr, and Fedosejevs, 1997). Wearing Ultraviolet protective clothing is a simple way of practicing sun safety; however, regular cotton generally has very low ultraviolet protection and it is one of the most environmentally damaging crops despite of it is commonly used to make summer clothing. With the increased interest of public awareness related to sustainability and environmental issues, naturally colored cotton was recommended as it provides better ultraviolet protection than regular cotton. In addition, the production of naturally colored cotton is more environmentally friendly than regular cotton. Although several studies have been conducted on the UVR protection of naturally colored cotton, many questions regarding the factors that influence the UVR protection of fabrics remain unanswered. The primary purpose of the study was to examine the effects of perspiration application, weathering exposures, washing action of automatic home clothes washers, and repeated laundering on the UVR protection of a NC lightweight cotton fabric. In addition, five fabric property changes in the test specimen after the treatments of perspiration, weathering exposure, washing action, and repeated laundering (i.e., fabric count change, thickness change, weight change, color change and dimensional change) were included in this study to serve as secondary dependent variables to examine if the four treatment factors (i.e., perspiration application, weathering exposures, washing action of automatic home clothes washers, and repeated laundering) will cause changes in these five fabric properties, and if these changes will lead to changes of UVR protection of NC lightweight cotton fabric. Based on the purpose and objectives of the study, a split-plot repeated measures experimental design was used for the current study. In this study, the whole plot treatment was the weathering exposure, which contained three levels (i.e., semi-tropical climate without water spray, semi-arid climate, and standard conditioning), and the split plot treatments were the combinations of two treatment factors. In order to understand the effects of repeated laundering on the UVR protection and the five fabric properties, except for the control group, all test specimens were laundered after being treated with the three treatment factors (i.e., perspiration, weathering exposure, and washing action), and this process was repeated 15 times. The UVR protection (i.e., express in UPF value change in current study) and the five fabric properties of these treated test specimens were measured before laundering, and after each laundering cycle. The results of UPF value change showed that test specimens treated with perspiration had a lower change in UPF value than the specimens without treatment. The test specimens exposed to Florida condition had the most UPF value change, followed by Arizona and Standard textile testing conditions. A significant difference also found in test specimens that laundered in a traditional washer after ninth cycle and the UPF value decreased as the number of laundering cycle increased. However, test specimens that laundered in a front-loading HE washer showed no significant UPF value change. For the five fabric properties that listed in secondary objective, all four treatments significantly influenced fabric count, fabric thickness and fabric weight. However, perspiration treatment had no significant effect on the dimensional change in warp direction of test specimens, and washing action had no significant effect on the dimensional change in filling direction of the test specimen as well as both Delta E and Delta L of color change. For testing the relationship between the changes of the five fabric properties and UPF value change, Delta E and Delta L of color change had the highest correlation coefficient with UPF value change. Therefore, it is possible that the changes of these two properties caused by the four treatments and lead to the UPF value change. Future research is needed to confirm this relationship. In conclusion, of perspiration application, weathering exposures, washing action of automatic home clothes washers, and repeated laundering do have influence on the ultraviolet protection of the naturally colored cotton. The color change of the test specimens caused by these four treatments possible lead to the change of the ultraviolet protection of the test specimens. More studies are needed to confirm this relationship.
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    Estimating Penalties for Violating the Minimum Wage and Hiring Illegal Immigrants: The Case of the U.S. Apparel Manufacturing Industry
    Rangel, Marie-Teresa (Virginia Tech, 2006-09-11)
    The U.S. apparel manufacturing industry includes many reputable firms, but is also believed to include many sweatshop operations. Sweatshop workers often work under sub-minimum wages, excessively long hours, and abusive management. Sweatshop establishments in the United States typically violate several U.S. labor laws. Two they commonly violate are the minimum wage under the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 and the ban on hiring illegal immigrants under the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986. The purpose of the present research was to estimate minimum penalties that would provide no monetary incentive for the average U.S. apparel manufacturing firm to violate the minimum wage and the ban on hiring illegal immigrants. The minimum per-violation penalties that were estimated to deter violation of the minimum wage are 8 to 28 times the current maximum penalty of $1,000 per violation, and those estimated to deter the hiring of illegal immigrants are 3 to 10 times the current maximum penalty of $10,000 per violation. The estimated penalties are associated with annual probabilities of prosecution ranging from 5% to 15%. The estimated penalties primarily depend on the difference between legal and illegal wage rates. A sensitivity analysis indicated that the estimated penalties are insensitive to the value of the own-price elasticity of production labor demand, which is one of the variables used to calculate the penalties. The results suggest that current federal penalties for violating the minimum wage or the ban on hiring illegal immigrants do not deter infraction of these laws by U.S. apparel manufacturers.
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    The Evolution of Luxury: Brand Management of Luxury Brands, Old and New
    Cavender, Rayecarol (Virginia Tech, 2012-06-21)
    This qualitative study contributed to the growing body of research in luxury brand management by constructing a framework that can be utilized by luxury companies and conglomerates to develop their business strategies. The purpose was to examine: (a) how the chosen luxury firm is addressing the changing business environment of the luxury goods industry and the changing consumer environment targeted by that industry, (b) how the firm is managing growth trade-offs, and (c) how the firm is adapting its marketing orientations to become consumer-centric and experiential. Six research questions guided the study, and data collection and analysis took place in two parts. Methods for this study included and in-depth review of literature, an exploration of the business environment, and a case study. The study concluded with the formation of a strategic management framework specific to the luxury goods industry. Data analysis included an in-depth exploration of the evolution of the business environment of the luxury goods industry from the mid-1800s to the first decade of the 2000s, and a case study of the sample luxury goods company, Louis Vuitton. A historical review was conducted beginning with the company's inception in 1854 and continuing through the formation of the LVMH conglomerate in 1987. Exploration brand management successes and failures helped identify information relevant to variables in selected business categories (business environment, corporate environment, marketing strategy). Analysis of the case study resulted in the refinement of the four brand management variables: corporate, brand management, trade-off, and strategic planning. Environmental determinism and the zeitgeist were evidenced to be important factors that shaped the business strategies of LVMH and its brands. Strategic planning and strategic management response were identified as ongoing strategies that helped LVMH and its brands to effectively address and respond to environmental changes. Both environmental determinism and the zeitgeist and the use of strategic management response were incorporated into the luxury brand management framework as overarching themes for explaining the influences and responses for the four management indicators.
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    A Grounded Theory Study of Systems Theory and Clothing and Textiles Theories for the Development of a Dynamic, Complex Human Systems Theory
    Beach, Joni Leigh (Virginia Tech, 1999-10-15)
    Metatheory, a study of theories, was the focus of this research study. A qualitative, grounded theory research design was used to examine documents on systems theory found outside the field of Clothing and Textiles (CT) and the social psychological theories used within CT. Recognizing the dynamic, complex nature of the human system and its interaction with multiple other systems led to the question of: What multidimensional theoretical framework would address this complexity and provide an expanded view for research and education in the field of CT? Data were collected from documentary materials pertaining to systems theory and CT theories by the researcher in a library search of the literature. Four domains were identified from the data that were collected and analyzed. The domains were Relationship, Process, Organization, and Outcomes. Then, a holistic, systemic theoretical framework and the Human-Environment Systems model were developed from the integration of systems theory and the CT theories. The model was designed to give a general, abstract visual representation of the theoretical concepts of a holistic, systemic view of the human-environment unit. A discussion of the complex societal issue of body image and eating disorders in females served to illustrate the use of the proposed theoretical framework and model. Recommendations were made for future exploration of the use of a holistic perspective for research and educational practices in the field of CT in order to address dynamic, complex human-environment problems.
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    Identifying the Small Apparel Manufacturer: A Typology of Manufacturing Strategies
    Jones, Michelle R. (Virginia Tech, 1999-04-16)
    The purpose of this study was to develop a typology of small apparel manufacturers (SAMs), firms classified between SIC 2310 to 2389 and less than 50 employees. The objectives were to (a) determine if distinct manufacturing strategies existed among SAMs, (b) develop a profile of these groups using environmental factors known to affect the apparel industry and small businesses (i.e., customer service, operations, barriers, assistance, customer size, customer location, competitor size, competitor location), (c) develop a profile of SAMs based on demographics (i.e., SIC, end-use for products, manufacturing process, type of firm, fashion position, employee size, manufacturing strategy, marketing strategy, annual gross revenue), and (d) determine the existence of a relationship between SAMs use of market strategies and manufacturing strategies. Data were collected from 146 SAMs, which represented 15 states with the highest number of SAMs. Factor analysis was used to identify manufacturing strategy factors (i.e., flexibility, environmental consciousness, product attributes, lot sizes), which were used to cluster respondents; and environmental factors (i.e., customer service, education/industry awareness, flexibility, timing, unit costs, production resources, technology/automation, consistency in sales, investment capital, import reductions). Four clusters of manufacturing strategies emerged and were profiled according to environmental factors and demographic variables (i.e., products, product classification, manufacturing processes, type of firm, type of fashion, manufacturing strategies, marketing strategies, firm's employee size, annual gross revenues). Significant differences occurred among the four manufacturing strategy groups and environmental factors. Significant differences occurred among the four manufacturing strategy groups and demographic variables. No relationship existed between manufacturing strategy groups and their marketing strategy.
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    The Impact of Environmental Factors on Business Strategies in Selected Major U.S. Apparel Manufacturing Companies 1970-2005
    Park, Hyejune (Virginia Tech, 2007-08-06)
    The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of environmental factors on business strategies for U.S. apparel manufacturing companies. Three research objectives were established to achieve this study purpose: (a) to explore the business environment of the U.S. apparel manufacturing industry from 1970 to 2005, (b) to investigate the business strategies for selected major U.S. apparel manufacturing companies in response to the environment from 1970 to 2005, and (c) to determine if patterns or themes are found in changes of the business strategies for the selected U.S. apparel manufacturing companies. Two theories were used as a framework for this study: organizational interpretation process (e.g., Daft & Weick, 1984; Milliken, 1990) and organizational adaptation theory (e.g., Miles & Snow, 1978; Zeithaml & Zeithaml, 1984). Qualitative analysis was conducted for data analysis. Part 1 of data analysis was the in-depth exploration of the business environment for the apparel manufacturing industry in terms of globalization, technology, and consumer; and apparel firms' business strategies that have been implemented in response to these environments, from 1970 to 2005. Part 2 of data analysis was the case studies of two sample apparel companies (i.e., Nike, Inc., VF Corporation). The business strategies of the two companies in response to their business environments from 1970 to 2005 were investigated. The in-depth exploration of general business strategies of the U.S. apparel industry and the case studies of two sample companies' specific business strategies revealed that U.S. apparel manufacturing companies have gone through the process that was proposed in the model of the study; they have been significantly affected by the environmental changes and have made changes to their business strategies in order to survive. These changes did vary between the two companies in the case study and were related to the original organization of the companies showing a variation in interpretation of the information.