Browsing by Author "Neale, Vicki L."
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- An Assessment of the Attention Demand Associated with the Processing of Information for In-Vehicle Information Systems (IVIS)Gallagher, John Paul (Virginia Tech, 2001-04-25)Technological interventions are being considered to alleviate congestion and to improve the quality of driving on our nation's highways. These new technology interventions will be capable of increasing the amount of information provided to the driver; therefore, steps must be taken to ensure they do not require a high attention demand. (Limited attention resources can be diverted from the primary task of driving to a secondary in-vehicle task). The attention demand required as part of the process of extracting information has been studied relatively extensively. However, the processing required to make complex decisions is not well understood and provides cause for concern. This study investigated the attention demand required to perform several types of tasks, such as selecting a route, selecting the cheapest route, and selecting the fastest route. The three objectives of this study were: 1) To investigate driver performance during IVIS tasks that required additional processing of information after the extraction of information from a visual display. 2) To develop a method for evaluating driver performance with regard to safety. This task was accomplished by performing an extensive review of the literature, and developing two composite measures. 3) To provide descriptive data on the proportion of drivers who exceeded a threshold of driver performance for each of the different IVIS tasks. An instrumented vehicle, equipped with cameras and sensors, was used to investigate on-road driver behavior on a four-lane divided road with good visibility. A confederate vehicle was driven in front of the instrumented vehicle to create a vehicle following situation. Thirty-six drivers participated in this study. Age, presentation format, information density, and type of task were the independent variables used in this study. Results from this study indicate that a high proportion of drivers' will have substantially degraded performance performing IVIS tasks such as selecting a route or a hotel from several possibilities. Findings also indicate that tasks involving computations, such as selecting the quickest or cheapest route, require a high attention demand and consequently should not be performed by a driver when the vehicle is in motion. In addition, text-based messages in paragraph format should not be presented to the driver while the vehicle is in motion. The graphic icon format should be utilized for route planning tasks.
- A comparison between predictive and formative cost-effectiveness evaluation techniques for the assessment of lecture and computer-based multimedia trainingNeale, Vicki L. (Virginia Tech, 1996)In an effort to validate a predictive (as opposed to a traditional formative or summative) cost-effectiveness model, a study was conducted to evaluate Kearsley and Compton's (1981) Benefits Model. Costs were input into the model as they applied to the design, development, and dissemination of two training programs on the topic of teaching individuals how to detect the level of drowsiness of their colleagues during team operations. The benefits of the training programs were identified, classified, and quantified as they applied to two media: lecture and computer-based multimedia. The experimenter identified the training system parameters, training benefits, and operational benefits. Then, for the predictive approach, the relationships between training system parameters, training benefits, and operational benefits were classified based on expert opinion. Quantification concerned the assignment of values (-1 or +1) based on expert opinion. The costs to design, develop, and disseminate the training programs were determined based on the parameters of the project. Finally, based on all information present, experts determined which of two training programs would be the most cost-effective to disseminate. To determine the accuracy of the Benefits Model as a predictive assessment tool, the same identified training system parameters, training benefits, and operational benefits were evaluated from a traditional formative evaluation approach. An empirical evaluation was conducted for the two training programs and a determination of the most cost-effective training medium was made. The data collected in the traditional formative evaluation approach was then compared to the experts' ratings and choice of training programs. For both the predictive and formative evaluation approach to determining cost-effectiveness, the computer-based multimedia was chosen as the most cost-effective training medium. However, for the predictive approach, the experts’ choice was based either solely or heavily on dollar amounts associated with design, development, and dissemination, while the data obtained through the validation process were given little or no weight. All experts stated that it would not have been possible to use the information gathered through application of the Benefits Model to determine cost-effectiveness with any confidence.
- Development of a Threat Assessment Algorithm for Intersection Collision Avoidance SystemsDoerzaph, Zachary R. (Virginia Tech, 2007-11-27)Relative to other roadway segments, intersections occupy a small portion of the overall infrastructure; however, they represent the location for nearly 41 % of the annual automotive crashes in the United States. Thus, intersections are an inherently dangerous roadway element and a prime location for vehicle conflicts. Traditional safety treatments are effective at addressing certain types of intersection safety deficiencies; however, cumulative traffic data suggests these treatments do not address a large portion of the crashes that occur each year. Intersection Collision Avoidance Systems (ICAS) represent a new breed of countermeasures that focus on the types of crashes that have not been reduced with the application of traditional methods. Incursion systems, a subset of ICAS, are designed to specifically undertake crashes that are a result of the violation of a traffic control device. Intersection Collision Avoidance Systems to address Violations (ICAS-V) monitor traffic as it approaches the intersection through a network of in-vehicle sensors, infrastructure- mounted sensors, and communication equipment. A threat-assessment algorithm performs computations to predict the driver's intended intersection maneuver, based on these sensor inputs. If the system predicts a violation, it delivers a timely warning to the driver with the aim of compelling the driver to stop. This warning helps the driver to avoid a potential crash with adjacent traffic. The following dissertation describes an investigation of intersection approach behavior aimed at developing a threat assessment algorithm for stop-sign intersections. Data were collected at live intersections to gather infrastructure-based naturalistic vehicle approach trajectories. This data were compiled and analyzed with the goal of understanding how drivers approach intersections under various speeds and environmental conditions. Six stop-controlled intersection approaches across five intersections in the New River Valley, Virginia area were selected as the test sites. Data were collected from each site for at least two months, resulting in over sixteen total months of data. A series of statistical analysis techniques were applied to construct a set of threat assessment algorithms for stop-controlled intersections. These analyses identified characteristics of intersection approaches that suggested driver intent at the stop sign. Models were constructed to predict driver stopping intent based on measured vehicle kinematics. These models were thoroughly tested using simulation and evaluated with signal detection theory. The overall output of this work is a set of algorithms that may be integrated into an ICAS-V for on-road testing.
- Enhanced Night Visibility Series, Volume II: Overview of Phase I and Development of Phase II Experimental PlanDingus, Thomas A.; Allen, Gary R.; Brich, Stephen C.; Neale, Vicki L.; Schroeder, Aaron D.; Blanco, Myra; Schnell, Thomas; Gillespie, James S.; Schroeder, Tracey T.; Simmons, Carole J.; Hankey, Jonathan M. (United States. Federal Highway Administration, 2005-12)The focus of the Phase I effort was on the establishment of performance and design objectives to facilitate the deployment of ultraviolet A (UV-A) headlamps. This report describes the plan to develop UV-A headlamp specifications, evaluate fluorescent infrastructure materials, quantify glare and photobiological risks, expand the cost/benefit analysis, and demonstrate and implement the UV-A technology. It also includes a literature review that was conducted before the Phase II studies. As is often the case in large projects, some of the planned work eventually changed or was replaced to address more pressing issues. The later volumes of this report series detail what research occurred and why.
- An Examination of Driver Performance Under Reduced Visibility Conditions When Using An In-Vehicle Signing Information System (ISIS)Collins, Dennis James (Virginia Tech, 1997-04-10)Recent technological innovations and the need for increased safety on the world's roads have led to the introduction of In- Vehicle Information Systems (IVIS). These systems will provide navigation and advisory information to drivers while they are driving. One aspect of these systems, In-vehicle Signing Information Systems (ISIS), would provide the warning, regulatory, and advisory information that is currently found on road signs. These systems may be of particular benefit when external elements such as rain, snow, or night driving reduce or eliminate the opportunity for drivers to detect road signs. This study attempts to determine what benefits, if any, are realized by drivers using this system. Fifty-eight drivers operated an instrumented Oldsmobile Aurora under eight conditions. The eight conditions consisted of a daylight-clear weather-ISIS condition, a daylight-clear weather-No ISIS condition, a daylight-rain-ISIS condition, a daylight-rain-No ISIS condition, a night-clear weather-ISIS condition, a night-clear weather-No ISIS condition, a night-rain-ISIS condition, and a night-rain-No ISIS condition. Younger drivers (18-30 years old) and older drivers (65 years or older) took part in this study. Three measures of driver performance were collected along with subjective preference data. Each measure was evaluated in order to determine what impact, if any, weather, time of day, age, and ISIS use had on performance. Subjective data was evaluated to determine driver preference and acceptance of the ISIS display. The results indicated that use of the ISIS display led to reduced speeds and greater reaction distances for all drivers. Evidence was found that seems to indicate that older drivers may receive a greater benefit in complex, unfamiliar, or low visibility situations. Evidence was also found that indicates that all drivers may receive a greater benefit at night for the complex or unfamiliar situations. Subjectively, the majority of the drivers indicated that the ISIS display made them more aware of road sign information.
- The Impact of Driver Inattention on Near-Crash/Crash Risk: An Analysis Using the 100-Car Naturalistic Driving Study DataKlauer, Charlie; Dingus, Thomas A.; Neale, Vicki L.; Sudweeks, Jeremy D.; Ramsey, D. J. (United States. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2006-04)The purpose of this report was to conduct in-depth analyses of driver inattention using the driving data collected in the 100-Car Naturalistic Driving Study. An additional database of baseline epochs was reduced from the raw data and used in conjunction with the crash and near-crash data identified as part of the original 100-Car Study to account for exposure and establish near-crash/crash risk. The analyses presented in this report are able to establish direct relationships between driving behavior and crash and near-crash involvement. Risk was calculated (odds ratios) using both crash and near-crash data as well as normal baseline driving data for various sources of inattention. The corresponding population attributable risk percentages were also calculated to estimate the percentage of crashes and near-crashes occurring in the population resulting from inattention. Additional analyses involved: driver willingness to engage in distracting tasks or driving while drowsy; analyses with survey and test battery responses; and the impact of driver’s eyes being off of the forward roadway. The results indicated that driving while drowsy results in a four- to six-times higher near-crash/crash risk relative to alert drivers. Drivers engaging in visually and/or manually complex tasks have a three-times higher near-crash/crash risk than drivers who are attentive. There are specific environmental conditions in which engaging in secondary tasks or driving while drowsy is more dangerous, including intersections, wet roadways, and areas of high traffic density. Short, brief glances away from the forward roadway for the purpose of scanning the driving environment are safe and actually decrease near-crash/crash risk. Even in the cases of secondary task engagement, if the task is simple and requires a single short glance the risk is elevated only slightly, if at all. However, glances totaling more than 2 seconds for any purpose increase near-crash/crash risk by at least two times that of normal, baseline driving.
- Impact of Sleeper Berth Usage on Driver Fatigue, Final Project ReportDingus, Thomas A.; Neale, Vicki L.; Garness, Sheila A.; Hanowski, Richard J.; Keisler, Aysha S.; Lee, Suzanne E.; Perez, Miguel A.; Robinson, Gary S.; Belz, Steven M.; Casali, John G.; Pace-Schott, E. F.; Stickgold, Robert A.; Hobson, J. A. (United States. Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration, 2002)The goal of this project was to assess the impact that sleeper berth usage has on operator alertness. Forty-seven males and nine females participated in this study, constituting 13 teams and 30 single drivers. All drivers who participated in this study were recruited from one of four for-hire commercial trucking companies. Two tractors, a 1997 Volvo L4 VN-series tractor and a 1995 Peterbilt 379, with functionally identical instrumentation packages and data collection systems, were used for the study. The data acquisition system functioned to record four camera views, including the drivers face; driving performance information, including steering, lane departure, and braking; sleeper berth environmental data, including noise, vibration, and temperature; subjective alertness ratings; and data from the Nightcap sleep-monitoring system. The following results were obtained: (1) Sleeping in either a stationary or moving sleeper berth was shown to adversely affect sleep quality and quantity when compared to the home sleep data. This was particularly true for team drivers in moving trucks. (2) Team drivers generally acquired more sleep (greater than one hour per day on average) than did single drivers, with single drivers reporting six hours of sleep per 24-hour period and team drivers reporting just over seven hours per 24-hour period. (3) Team drivers had significantly more sleep disturbances than did single drivers. A primary cause of these disturbances appeared to be noise and vibration present in the sleeper berth of a moving truck. (4) In general, single drivers were rated as not drowsy more often and team drivers, who were rated as somewhat drowsy or moderately drowsy more often. However, of the 20 very/extremely drowsy episodes captured by Observer Ratings of Drowsiness, 16 were from single drivers. (5) Single drivers had many more critical incidents at all levels of severity relative to team drivers. (6) The frequency of critical incidents and driver errors varied significantly by the Hour of Day. However, many more incidents occurred during the afternoon and early evening as opposed to late at night. (7) Single drivers were more alert in the morning and gradually become fatigued during the day, whereas team drivers maintained a relatively constant level of alertness throughout the 24-hour clock.
- Improvement of Conspicuity for Trailblazing SignsBarker, Julie A. (Virginia Tech, 1998-04-15)This document represents efforts to design and evaluate a new sign design for emergency route trailblazing in a two-part series. Study 1 was an off-road field experiment conducted to determine the best color combination and letter design for the emergency sign. Based upon Study 1 results, black on coral, black on light blue, and yellow on purple signs were chosen for further testing against a baseline black on orange sign, all with 125-mm, D series letters. Study 2 was an on-road field study of conspicuity, conducted using an instrumented vehicle through a construction zone-related detour, and a survey questionnaire. The findings indicated that use of a color combination other than traditional black on orange will improve driver performance and safety when used for trailblazing during critical incidents. Based on the conclusions and other anecdotal evidence, the following recommendations were made: 1) Do not use black on orange signs for trailblazing around a critical incident if an existing detour/construction zone is in place; 2) Do not use a black on coral sign for trailblazing around a critical incident; 3) A light blue on black sign is recommended due to generally favorable subjective ratings and for minimization of turn errors in an overlapping detour; however, the black on light blue sign may resemble regulatory signs when headlights reflect onto it; and 4) If reject black on light blue signs based on (3), consider using yellow on purple signs, which resulted in fewer turn errors than black on orange and received generally favorable ratings.
- Improvement of Conspicuity of Trailblazing Signs: Phase III-Evaluation of Fluorescent ColorsNeale, Vicki L.; Anders, Richard L.; Schreiner, Christopher S.; Brich, Stephen C. (Virginia Center for Transportation Innovation and Research, 2001-02)This report represents a Phase III effort to design and evaluate a new sign design for incident route trailblazing. The colors evaluated were fluorescent coral, fluorescent purple, fluorescent yellow-green, and non-fluorescent purple. The results indicate no significant differences in driving performance with regard to the four experimental sign color combinations. Regarding the subjective preference questionnaires, significant questionnaire results along with trend information suggest that black on fluorescent yellow green was the most preferred by younger and older drivers during both day and night visibility conditions. Nonetheless, this sign color has been assigned by FHWA for pedestrian, school, and bicycle crossings, which eliminated the opportunity to use fluorescent yellow-green as a unique sign color for trailblazing in incident management situations. Preference for non-fluorescent yellow on purple consistently increased at night when the sign became more luminant; however, the overall preference for this sign color combination was lower than for the other sign color combinations tested in this study. With the elimination of these two signs, the remaining contenders for a unique sign color combination were black on fluorescent coral and fluorescent yellow on fluorescent purple. Black on fluorescent coral was ranked significantly higher than fluorescent yellow on fluorescent purple for visibility and for overall preference. Questionnaire trend information suggests that black on fluorescent coral was more preferred than fluorescent yellow on fluorescent purple during daytime viewing conditions and less preferred than fluorescent yellow on fluorescent purple during nighttime viewing conditions. The overlay film used for the fluorescent coral sign was a first generation material that can reasonably be expected to result in improved nighttime luminance when produced in a full production run. In addition to the study results, drivers commented that the arrow on the sign was too small to determine directional information from a comfortable distance. Based on such driver comments, the research conclusions, and the federal regulations enacted since the outset of this series of experiments, the following recommendations are made: (1) black on fluorescent coral should be used as a unique incident management sign color, and (2) the directional arrow on the sign should be larger.
- Intersection Decision Support: Evaluation of a Violation Warning System to Mitigate Straight Crossing Path CollisionsNeale, Vicki L.; Perez, Miguel A.; Doerzaph, Zachary R.; Lee, Suzanne E.; Stone, Scott R.; Dingus, Thomas A. (Virginia Center for Transportation Innovation and Research, 2006-04)This project entailed the design, development, testing, and evaluation of intersection decision support (IDS) systems to address straight crossing path (SCP) intersection crashes. This type of intersection crash is responsible for more than 100,000 crashes and thousands of fatalities each year. In developing these IDS systems for both signalized and stop-controlled intersections, a top-down systems approach was used that determined the necessary system functions and evaluated the capability of different technologies to perform those functions. Human factors tests were also conducted that evaluated the effectiveness of warning algorithms and infrastructure-based driver-infrastructure interfaces in eliciting a stopping response from drivers about to be involved in an SCP intersection crash. Results indicated that further technological development is needed for the sensing and intersection state IDS functions. Furthermore, infrastructure-based warning interfaces tested were greatly outperformed by previously-tested in-vehicle warnings. Thus, future research on IDS systems should focus on their infrastructure-cooperative configuration, where the system supports an in-vehicle warning.
- Intersection Stopping Behavior as Influenced by Driver State: Implications for Intersection Decision Support SystemsDoerzaph, Zachary R. (Virginia Tech, 2004-05-13)It is estimated that as many as 2.7 million crashes occur each year at intersections or are intersection related; resulting in over 8500 fatalities each year. These statistics have prompted government and corporate sponsored research into collision countermeasure systems that can enhance safety at intersections. Researchers are investigating technologies to provide an infrastructure-based or infrastructure-cooperative Intersection Decision Support (IDS) systems. Such systems would use pre-specified algorithms to identify drivers that have a high likelihood of violating the traffic signal and thus increase the risk of a collision. The system would subsequently warn the violating driver to stop though an in-vehicle or infrastructure-mounted interface. An IDS algorithm must be designed to provide adequate time for the driver to perceive, react, and stop the vehicle, while simultaneously avoiding a high false alarm rate. Prior to developing these algorithms, scientists must understand how drivers respond to traffic signals. Little research has focused on the influence of driver state on red-light running behavior or methods for distinguishing red light violators from non-violators. The objective of the present study was to define trends associated with intersection crossings under different driver states and to explore the point detection method of predicting red light running upstream of the intersection. This was accomplished through a test-track mixed-factor experiment with 28 participants. Each participant experienced a baseline (complete a full stop at the red light), distracted (misses signal phase change due to inattention), and willful (driver knowingly makes a late crossing in an attempt to 'beat the light') driver state conditions. To provide the opportunity for red-light running behavior from participants, the amber change interval began at five different distances from the intersection. These distances were located near and within the dilemma zone, a region in which drivers have a difficult time deciding whether to go or to stop. Data collected from in-vehicle sensors was statistically analyzed to determine significant effects between driver states, and to investigate point detection algorithms.
- Live Stop-Controlled Intersection Data CollectionDoerzaph, Zachary R.; Neale, Vicki L.; Bowman, Jodi; Wiegand, Kendra (Virginia Center for Transportation Innovation and Research, 2007-12)This report describes an experimental investigation performed at live intersections to gather infrastructure-based naturalistic driver approach behavior data. This data was collected and analyzed with the goal of understanding how drivers approach intersections under various speeds and environmental conditions. Six stop-controlled intersection approaches across five intersections in the New River Valley, Virginia area were selected for data collection. The sites were selected based on the intersection characteristics and crash statistics. Data was collected from each site for at least two months resulting in over sixteen total months of data. A data acquisition system was devised and implemented to obtain the first intersection data set with fidelity sufficient for developing intersection collision avoidance threat assessment algorithms. An explorative analysis of driver stopping behavior and vehicle trajectories was also performed. Results indicate that an intersection collision system for stop-controlled intersections is feasible. Avenues for future research and potential uses of this new database are highlighted.
- On-Road Investigation of Fluorescent Sign Colors to Improve ConspicuityAnders, Richard Lee (Virginia Tech, 2000-08-09)This thesis documents Phase III of a research program undertaken by the Virginia Transportation Research Council and the Virginia Tech Transportation Institute in cooperation with the 3M Company and the Virginia Department of Transportation for the evaluation of visual performance of retroreflective signs of various color combinations. Phase I was an off-road field experiment conducted to determine the best sign color combination, letter stroke width, and letter size for the emergency sign. Based upon the results of Phase I, three color combinations were chosen for testing (black on coral, black on light blue, and yellow on purple) against a baseline color combination of black on orange.Phase II was conducted using an instrumented vehicle through a construction zone-related detour. Questionnaire data were also obtained. The independent variables of interest were sign color combination, age, and visibility condition. The findings of Phase II indicated that use of a color combination other than the traditional black on orange sign would improve driver performance and safety when used for trailblazing during critical incidents, especially when the incident route overlaps a work zone detour. A serious limitation of Phases I and II is that the use of fluorescent colors was not evaluated. Anecdotal evidence suggests that the use of fluorescent colors on signs improves their conspicuity. The purpose of Phase III was to evaluate fluorescent sign color combinations for incident management trailblazing purposes. This study consisted of an on-road investigation using an instrumented vehicle over a 12.2-mile route in urban and rural areas of Montgomery County, Virginia. The following conclusions were made:*A non-fluorescent yellow on non-fluorescent purple sign is least preferred by both older and younger drivers when compared to the other sign color combinations employed in this study.*Both younger and older drivers have a preference for a black on fluorescent yellow-green sign.* Fewer late braking maneuvers and fewer turn errors were recorded during daytime conditions than during nighttime conditions. *Older drivers tended to register more late braking maneuvers than did younger drivers.
- Relationship Between Driver Characteristics, Nighttime Driving Risk Perception, and Visual Performance under Adverse and Clear Weather Conditions and Different Vision Enhancement SystemsBlanco, Myra (Virginia Tech, 2002-04-24)Vehicle crashes remain the leading cause of accidental death and injuries in the United States, claiming tens of thousands of lives and injuring millions of people each year. Many of these crashes occur during nighttime, where a variety of modifiers affect the risk of a crash, primarily through the reduction of object visibility. Furthermore, many of these modifiers also affect the nighttime mobility of older drivers, who avoid driving during the nighttime. Thus, a two-fold need exists for new technologies that enhance night visibility. Two separate studies were completed as part of this research. Study 1 served as a baseline by evaluating visual performance during nighttime driving under clear weather conditions. Visual performance was evaluated in terms of the detection and recognition distances obtained when different vision enhancement systems were used at the Smart Road testing facility. Study 2, also using detection and recognition distances, compared the visual performance of drivers during low visibility conditions (i.e., due to rain) to the risk perception of driving during nighttime under low visibility conditions. These comparisons were made as a function of various vision enhancement systems. The age of the driver and the characteristics of the object presented (e.g., contrast, motion) were variables of interest in both studies. The pivotal contribution of this investigation is the generation of a model describing the relationships between driver characteristics, risk perception, and visual performance in nighttime driving in the context of a variety of standard and prototype vision enhancement systems. Improvement of mobility, especially for older individuals, can be achieved through better understanding of the factors that increase risk perception, identification of systems that improve detection and recognition distances, and consideration of drivers' opinions on possible solutions that improve nighttime driving safety. In addition, this research effort empirically described the night vision enhancement capabilities of 12 different vision enhancement systems during clear and adverse weather environments.
- Twisted Metal: An Investigation into Observable Factors that Lead to Critical Traffic EventsKieliszewski, Cheryl A. (Virginia Tech, 2005-10-24)The purpose of this research was to explore traffic event severity relationships, evaluate the potentiality of a hazardous event, and develop a framework of observable event factors. Data was collected from three regions in Virginia, each assumed to exemplify a unique driving environment due to amount of traffic and infrastructure characteristics. In combination, a broad spectrum of site, traffic, and driver performance variables were accounted for. Observational techniques of surveillance, incident reporting, and inventorying were used to collect site, traffic, and driver data. This effort resulted in 368 observed traffic events that were evenly distributed among the three regions that represented metropolitan, mid-sized city, and town/rural driving environments. The 368 events were evaluated for severity and contributing variables where 1% of the events were non-injury crashes, 10% were serious, near-crashes, 24% were near-crashes, and the remaining 65% were serious errors with a hazard present. Exploratory analyses were performed to understand the general relationship between event severity levels. Binary logistic regression analyses (α = 0.05) were performed to further scope predictor variables to identify traffic event characteristics with respect to severity level, maneuver type, and conflict type. The results were that 69 of 162 observed predictor variables were valuable in characterizing traffic events based on severity. It was found that variables could be grouped to create event severity signatures for crashes, serious near-crashes, and near-crashes. Based on these signatures, it was found that there is a trend between severity levels that included a propensity for problems with straight path maneuvers, lateral and longitudinal vehicle control, and information density within the driving environment as contributing to driver error and hence crashes and near-crashes. There were also differences between the severity levels. These differences were evident in the degree of control the driver appeared to have of the vehicle, type of control regulating the driving environment, and type of road users present in the driving environment. Modifications to roadway evaluative techniques would increase awareness of additional variables that impact drivers to make more informed decisions for roadway enhancements.