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Browsing by Author "Norton, Marjorie J. T."

Now showing 1 - 20 of 26
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    Age and dress of professors: influence on students' first impressions of teaching effectiveness
    Davis, Margery Ann Salisbury (Virginia Tech, 1992-02-05)
    Using the framework of attribution theory, the variables of age of professors, formality of dress of professors, and class of student were tested for their influence on college students' expectations of the teaching effectiveness of college professors in a first impression situation. A rating questionnaire containing ten positive professors' traits was developed. An older male and a younger male were photographed in black-and-white in three outfits, for a total of six photographs. The sample consisted of two groups: 179 freshmen and 175 seniors. Each student was randomly assigned one of the six photographs to rate. A Pearson correlation of the ten traits revealed two groups of closely related traits plus some miscellaneous traits. One group represented competence and one represented approachability. A multivariate analysis of variance indicated that the factors of age and formality were significant. Overall, the older professor rated significantly higher than the younger. The older professor received higher scores on knowledge, preparation, and organization, while the younger professor received a higher score on sympathy toward students. The lowest formality rated the highest of the three levels, with the moderate level receiving the lowest score. The lowest level rated significantly higher on clarity of communication. This trait had the highest negative association with formality. The highest and lowest level rated significantly higher for well-prepared. The older professor in the lowest formality of dress rated the highest of all six photographs. The factor of class was not significant. There were no significant two- or three-way interactions. Overall, results indicate that older males are expected to be more effective professors than younger males. Evidently age gives an impression of experience. Casual dress conveys the best impression. Perhaps students can relate more to professors when professors are dressed more like them.
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    Analysis of Clothing Websites for Young Customer Retention based on A Model of Customer Relationship Management via the Internet
    Seock, Yoo-Kyoung (Virginia Tech, 2003-07-31)
    In today's era of intense competition for acquiring and retaining customers, customer retention has become a major issue and a key objective in modern retailing. With the emergence of new information technologies, the Internet offers new possibilities for customer retention through the management of relationships between marketers and consumers. Little empirical research has addressed the role of Internet websites in retaining customers for particular brands or at particular stores. The purpose of this research was to determine the effects of the attitudes of a sample of young consumers aged 18 to 22 toward their favorite websites on intentions to purchase through the Internet and channels other than Internet clothing websites. The data were collected using an online survey with a structured questionnaire. The subjects of the study were 414 male and female undergraduate and graduate students at Virginia Tech and The Ohio State University, who were aged 18 to 22 and non-married. Several hypotheses were put forward and results except for one hypothesis were supported. Factor analysis, cluster analysis, factorial MANOVA, canonical correlation analysis, multiple regression, path analysis, and t-tests were employed to test the research hypotheses on the relationships among the variables. The factorial MANOVA results showed that shopping orientation and previous online shopping experience affected the evaluation of general clothing website characteristics, as well as the evaluation of favorite clothing websites. The canonical correlation results revealed that the product information, customer service, and navigation factors represented the favorite clothing website characteristics and were well predicted by the same constructs of the general clothing website characteristics. The path analysis revealed that attitudes toward favorite clothing websites were positively related to intentions to search for information at favorite clothing websites, and that intentions to search for information at those websites were positively related to intentions to purchase from those websites as well as from channels other than Internet clothing websites. Attitudes toward favorite clothing websites were directly and positively related to intentions to purchase clothing items from favorite clothing websites, and were not directly related to intentions to purchase clothing items from channels other than Internet clothing websites. The results also showed that shopping orientation affected intentions to search for information on one hand, and intentions to purchase clothing items from favorite clothing websites on the other. The online information search and purchase groups were significantly different in their intentions to purchase clothing items from their favorite clothing websites. From the results of the present research, it is concluded that Internet websites play a pivotal role in forming consumers� attitude toward the websites, which eventually lead to their information search and purchase intention from the websites. In addition, consumers' online information search intentions influence their purchase intention at channels other than Internet. Thus, by establishing effective websites, marketers can retain their customers through multiple channels including the Internet, brick-and-mortar stores, and catalogs.
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    Body Image, self-esteem, and clothing of men and women aged 55 years and older
    Hwang, Jinsook (Virginia Tech, 1993-12-14)
    Although there are many studies regarding body image of younger people, there have been few studies on that of older people. Since today's culture considers the young, thin body image ideal, it is important to investigate body image of older people and the relationships between their body image, self esteem, and clothing behavior. The purpose of this study was to determine the relationships between 1) body-cathexis and self-esteem, 2) body-cathexis and clothing behavior, 3) self-esteem and clothing behavior, 4) body cathexis and demographics, and 5) demographics and clothing behavior of selected men and women aged 55 years and older. Data were obtained from 67 men and 75 women aged 55 years and older who were members of senior centers and local churches located in Atlanta, Georgia. The questionnaire regarding body cathexis, self-esteem, clothing behavior, and demographics was administered through a mail survey. Body cathexis consisted c: five areas of body parts. A modification of Rosenberg's self-esteem scale was used with a 4-point Likert scale. The clothing behavior variable had seven dimensions.
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    Clothing deprivation: influence on self-esteem and perceptions of school climate for middle school female students
    Callen, Karen S. (Virginia Tech, 1992-05-06)
    Adolescence is a critical time for changes in self-concept and body-image awareness. Self-esteem, the evaluative component of self concept, has been found to be influenced by acceptance by peers. Appearance has been found to influence peer acceptance, and clothing is one tool which may modify appearance. Increasing competitiveness among adolescents with regard to clothing has been cited as one reason for encouraging uniforms or strict dress codes in schools. If an adolescent cannot afford the desired quality and quantity of clothing or is dissatisfied with clothing when compared to that of friends and classmates, high perceptions of clothing deprivation occurs. If an adolescent has high perceptions of clothing deprivation, she may experience low self-esteem. The purpose of the present study was to examine relationships between perceptions of clothing deprivation, perceptions of school climate, and self-esteem for a selected group of middle school females.
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    College Students' Perceived Attributes of Internet Websites and Online Shopping
    Seock, You-Kyoung; Norton, Marjorie J. T. (Project Innovation (Alabama), 2008-03)
    The purpose of this study was to examine perceptions of attributes of clothing retailers' Internet websites in relation to previous and intended future purchase from the websites. Survey data from 414 U.S. college students, non-married and aged 18-22 with online clothing shopping experience and favorite clothing websites were used. Five clothing website attributes were identified by factor analysis (i.e., product information, customer service, privacy/security, navigation, auditory experience/comparison shopping). Multiple regression results showed positive relationships between frequency of previous purchase from websites and perceived product-information, customer-service, and privacy-and-security attributes of the websites, and between future intended purchase from websites and perceived customer-service attributes of the websites. Implications were discussed for effective website design by clothing marketers and for consumer education of college students.
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    Development of a transducer for detecting pressure load between a garment and the body
    Maher, Theresa Anne (Virginia Tech, 1991-02-05)
    Garment pressure and its relation to the body is important in the fit and function of clothing. The purpose of this study was to develop and test a transducer to measure the perpendicular pressure between a garment (brassiere) and the underlying skin of the shoulders, breast and back. A transducer was developed through experimentation based on the principles of the Natick lab pneumatic bladders. The transducer was connected to a system which assisted in data collection. This study revealed that it is possible to develop an inexpensive transducer that is reliable for data collection. The ability to evaluate garments in an objective manner could be combined with the subjective analysis of a model wearing a test garment. The analysis could provide information for redesigning a garment that is both functional and comfortable.
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    Domestic-made versus imported men's dress shirts:college men's attitudes and quality perception
    Lin, Shiouh-Miin (Virginia Tech, 1987-07-05)
    The purposes of this study were (1) to identify selected consumers' attitudes toward purchasing domestic- made shirts and those imported from a low-wage country, and (2) to evaluate the relative effects of price, brand name, and country-of-origin on perception of quality of men's dress shirts. A convenience sample of 120 male undergraduate students registered at Virginia Tech completed questionnaires in selected classes. Research hypotheses that consumers' attitudes toward selected beneficial and imagery attributes would be more positive for domestic shirts than for imported shirts were supported in the single cue situation. The effects of price, brand name and country-of-origin on consumers' quality perception were significant with price and brand name slightly more important than country-of-origin. The interactions between price and country-of-origin, and between brand name and country-of-origin were not significant.
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    Effects of clothing interest and knowledge on perceptions and evaluation of clothing products: moderating effects on price-perceived quality relationships
    Cho, Aehwa Kwon (Virginia Tech, 1992-08-16)
    The differential effects of clothing interest and knowledge on the utilization of price and intrinsic attributes on product evaluation and behavioral intentions were investigated. The impact of clothing interest and knowledge, price, and intrinsic attributes on attitude toward advertisements and perceptions of relevance, typicality, and fashionability were examined. Causal relationships among constructs were verified through path analysis. A conceptual model was developed and tested. To test the proposed model and additional propositions, a survey was conducted with manipulated variables. Data were collected in Clothing and Textiles departments of three universities and Communications and Marketing departments in one university. Respondents evaluated a pair of dress slacks inclusive of manipulated price and intrinsic attributes. A total of 417 questionnaires were subjected to statistical analysis. The items used to measure the theoretical constructs were thoroughly tested to assure the reliability of the measures and manipulation checks were conducted. The data were analyzed by multiple regression to test the significance of the proposed relationships. To test the differences between the high and low clothing interest and knowledge conditions, subjects were divided into two groups based on median scores on clothing interest and clothing knowledge scales. Then the data were subjected to analysis of variance and Duncan's Multiple Range Test. The results indicate that taken together, price, intrinsic attributes, clothing interest and knowledge significantly help to predict perceptions of quality, monetary sacrifice, perceptions of benefits, perceptions of value, willingness to buy, search intention, and attitude toward advertisements. Intrinsic attributes were significant in predicting the perceptions of quality, benefits, monetary sacrifice, value, and subjects' willingness to buy, search intention, attitude toward advertisements, and perceptions of typicality. Clothing interest was significant in predicting perceptions of monetary sacrifice, perceptions of benefits, perceptions of value, and willingness to buy. The proposed effect of clothing knowledge was significant in predicting subjects' perceptions of quality and intentions to search. The model specifying the causal relationships among the proposed variables was analyzed by Path Analysis. The results indicated that the relationships were significant and thus the proposed model was supported.
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    Effects of Quantitative Restrictions on U.S. Textile and Apparel Imports over 1995-2010: An Analysis using Gravity Models
    Kim, Eun Hee (Virginia Tech, 2014-09-18)
    The purpose of this study is to examine the effects on U.S. textile and apparel imports of the quantitative restrictions imposed under the Agreement on Textiles and Clothing (ATC) (1995-2005), the post-ATC U.S. safeguard quotas on 21 categories of Chinese textile and apparel products (2006-2008), and no quantitative restrictions on U.S. textile and apparel imports (2009-2010). Data were sourced from the Office of Textiles and Apparel (OTEXA) in the U.S. Department of Commerce, the GeoDist dataset from the Centre d'Etudes Prospectives et d'Informations Internationales (CEPII), and the United Nations Commodity Trade (U.N. Comtrade) database. In this research, three gravity equations were developed and estimated based on the existing gravity model. The first gravity equation was estimated to assess the effects of the independent variables commonly included in gravity models on the total value of U.S. textile and apparel imports from 187 exporting countries with a scaled dependent variable and from 177 without it. The result of the first gravity equation indicated that distance and the per capita GDPs of the exporting countries, exchange rates, and the total GDPs of the exporting countries are statistically significant and have the expected signs in the model with the scaled dependent variable. The second gravity equation was estimated to access the overall effect of the presence or absence of quotas and VERs on U.S. textile and apparel import quantity from the 187 exporting countries. The results from the second gravity model showed that the presence or absence of quotas or VERs is significant and has an unexpected positive sign because the United States tended to impose quotas and VERs on textile and apparel products that it imported in large amounts. The third gravity equation was estimated to assess trade creation and trade diversion effect of the quota and VER levels of U.S. textile and apparel imports with separate equations by product types considering the endogeneity by applying instrumental variables. The result from the third gravity equation showed that the quota and VER level is significant for fabric, apparel, and made-up products with expected signs but the variable is not significant for yarn products. These findings suggest that U.S. textile and apparel imports from the exporting countries limited by quotas and VERs on U.S. textile and apparel imports increased more than rest of world (ROW) imports from those countries as the quota and VER levels on U.S textile and apparel imports increased. Therefore, trade creation occurred between the United States and the exporting countries as the total SME quota or VER levels on those imports increased during the ATC and safeguard period. However, these findings show the demand of yarn as intermediates does not increase much in the United States; therefore, the increase of the total yarn quota or VER level has less of an effect on the yarn imports than other product types.
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    Effects of South Korean Market Liberalization on the South Korean Retail Market
    Hwang, Eun Jin (Virginia Tech, 1998-12-17)
    South Korea is a country that is poor in natural resources and capital and remains behind many other nations in technological development; however, South Korea's unique development strategy has led its economy to high growth over the last three decades. During 1997, South Korea began to experience a serious financial crisis, including bankruptcies of many of its conglomerates, a drastic depreciation in the international exchange rate of the South Korean currency, and an increasing foreign debt. Currently South Korea is struggling to compete with products from both industrialized nations and newly industrializing nations. The current crisis has occurred as South Korea has been engaged in extensive market-opening. Knowledge is lacking about South Korea's intricate and rapidly changing political and economic climate. The purpose of this research was to explore and clarify the interrelated factors that have contributed to South Korea's present economic problems, especially those facing South Korea's retailing industry. The qualitative methodology of "grounded theory" was used in this study. Grounded theory is a general methodology for developing theory that is grounded in data which are systematically gathered and analyzed. Theory evolves during the research process through a continuous interplay between analysis and data collection. This research attempted to discover the factors, or themes, that have affected the South Korean economy and retailing industry. The following factors were identified: (1) foreign direct investment; (2) the price-gap between imported goods and domestic products; (3) South Korea's trade deficit; (4) perceived over-consumption of luxury items by South Korean consumers; and (5) the chaebol, or South Korean large conglomerates. The economic factors that have led to the current difficulties facing the South Korean retailing market are complicated and interwoven. South Korean retailers will have to address these factors in the future, and attempt to find solutions. It is hoped that the knowledge resulting from this will be of benefit to South Korea's attempt to compete in a global marketplace.
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    Employed women's intentions to purchase apparel sewing services: beliefs, attitudes, and normative influences
    Watson, Karen Bruck (Virginia Tech, 1998)
    Historically, the construction, alteration, and mending of clothing was provided through household production activities, free of charge by the female members of the household or members of the extended family. These practices have changed in some families because of societal and cultural changes such as the increasing number of women who are employed outside of the household. Apparel construction, alteration, and mending are now available for purchase from service providers in the marketplace. Thus the overall purpose of this research was to examine the nature and foundation of the nonnative influences and attitudes of a sample of employed women toward purchasing apparel sewing services. Ajzen and Fishbein's (1980) reasoned action model which theorizes four stable relationships provided the theoretical framework for the research. The four relationships were Behavior-Intention (BI}, Attitude-Subjective Norm-Intention (ASNI), Behavioral Beliefs-Attitude (BBA), and Normative Beliefs-Subjective Norm (NBSN). Four corresponding objectives were investigated for three sewing services, clothing construction, alteration, and mending. A fifth objective for each apparel sewing service was used to explore the possible associations among a set of external variables and the employed women's estimated attitudes, estimated subjective norms, and the relative weights of the attitudinal and normative components in the ASNI relationship. Questions to measure behaviors, intentions to purchase, attitudes, behavioral beliefs, subjective norms, and normative beliefs were developed according to Ajzen and Fishbein's (1980) guidelines. Additional questions were developed to assess fourteen external variables derived from the review of literature. Two thousand ninety two questionnaires were sent through Virginia Tech's campus mail; 657 (97%) of the 679 (32%) returned were useable for the study. Kendall's Tau testing resulted in significant positive BBA relationships for all three sewing services. Multiple regression testing resulted in significant positive ASNI relationships for all sewing services. Significant positive BBA and NBSN relationships resulted from Pearson Product Moment Correlations for all three sewing services. All four null hypotheses for all three sewing services were rejected and the research hypotheses were supported. The fifth objective was investigated through three null hypothesis for each sewing service; each null hypothesis was tested with each external variable. The external variable, knowing someone who sews for pay, yielded statistically significant results for all three sewing services in the F-tests for the overall regressions, analysis of variance, and in the Tukey' s post hoc test; however this variable did not lead to significant differences in the standardized betas for services of altering and mending clothes, according to the Chow tests. No other external variables had as many significant tests for all three sewing services as knowing someone who sews for pay had, even though there were other significant tests in some of the relationships tested. Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
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    Estimating Penalties for Violating the Minimum Wage and Hiring Illegal Immigrants: The Case of the U.S. Apparel Manufacturing Industry
    Rangel, Marie-Teresa (Virginia Tech, 2006-09-11)
    The U.S. apparel manufacturing industry includes many reputable firms, but is also believed to include many sweatshop operations. Sweatshop workers often work under sub-minimum wages, excessively long hours, and abusive management. Sweatshop establishments in the United States typically violate several U.S. labor laws. Two they commonly violate are the minimum wage under the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 and the ban on hiring illegal immigrants under the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986. The purpose of the present research was to estimate minimum penalties that would provide no monetary incentive for the average U.S. apparel manufacturing firm to violate the minimum wage and the ban on hiring illegal immigrants. The minimum per-violation penalties that were estimated to deter violation of the minimum wage are 8 to 28 times the current maximum penalty of $1,000 per violation, and those estimated to deter the hiring of illegal immigrants are 3 to 10 times the current maximum penalty of $10,000 per violation. The estimated penalties are associated with annual probabilities of prosecution ranging from 5% to 15%. The estimated penalties primarily depend on the difference between legal and illegal wage rates. A sensitivity analysis indicated that the estimated penalties are insensitive to the value of the own-price elasticity of production labor demand, which is one of the variables used to calculate the penalties. The results suggest that current federal penalties for violating the minimum wage or the ban on hiring illegal immigrants do not deter infraction of these laws by U.S. apparel manufacturers.
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    Ethnicity and Clothing Expenditures of U.S. Households: A Structural Equations Model with Latent Quality Variables
    Plassmann, Vandana Shah (Virginia Tech, 2000-08-29)
    The main objective of this study was to determine the relationship between household characteristics and the expenditure shares allocated among various categories of women's clothing for U.S. households belonging to different ethnic groups. The study also estimated unobserved latent quality variables based on household characteristics, and examined the effects of the latent quality variables on the expenditure shares for the various apparel categories. A Multiple Indicator-Multiple Cause Model, which is a special case of the general Structural Equations Model, was used to estimate separate Engel equations for 15 expenditure shares for women's clothing categories, for four different ethnic groups. The results of the study showed that household characteristics had a significant impact on the latent quality variables associated with different categories of women's clothing, and the latent quality variables themselves impacted the clothing expenditure shares. Also, for different ethnic groups, household characteristics had differing effects on women's clothing expenditure shares. Of all the characteristics examined, annual total household expenditures and numbers of children and adults in the household had significant effects on the largest numbers of latent quality variables associated with the clothing categories for the four ethnic groups. The socio-economic variables also significantly affected several clothing expenditure shares for the four ethnic groups. These results imply that socio-economic variables impact consumers' quality choices, and presumably prices paid, for women's clothing. The results support the conclusions of Paulin (1998), and Wagner and Soberon-Ferrer (1990), in that different ethnic groups have distinct expenditure patterns possibly due to differences in socio-economic characteristics; such characteristics may signify resources and constraints faced by a household. The distinct expenditure patterns and tastes of the four ethnic groups are reflected in the significantly different effects of annual total expenditures on the expenditure shares for each category of women's clothing, as well as in the significantly different effects of the latent quality variables on several expenditure shares, for the four ethnic groups.
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    Impact of financial risk on U.S. apparel buyers' need for information sources and information on product characteristics and vendor reputation
    Doss, Farrell Dean (Virginia Tech, 1996-02-09)
    Having pertinent information is a key to successful and profitable apparel purchasing. Fashion apparel buyers use information sources to obtain information on product characteristics and on vendor reputation. The perceived financial risk of the purchasing activity has been shown to affect ratings of importance of the need for information. Few studies have addressed how fashion apparel buyers evaluate and react to perceived financial risk in their purchasing task. The purpose of this study is to examine the impact of high and low perceived risk on U.S. apparel buyers' need for information sources and for information on product characteristics and vendor reputation variables during the apparel purchasing decision making process. Data (N=110) were obtained from a random sampling of apparel buyers listed in the Million Dollar Directory (1995). The questionnaire, administered through a mail survey, contained two scenarios and demographic questions about the buyers and their firms. Based on the scenarios, respondents rated the importance of the need for information sources and for information types. Data were analyzed using matched pair t-tests, analysis of variance with post-hoc tests, multiple regression, and Pearson product moment correlations. Matched pair t-tests showed that the respondents’ importance ratings for the information sources, product characteristics, and vendor reputation variables varied in the two risk scenarios. Analysis of variance results showed that the need for the upper management and another buyer/peer information sources and for information on consumer demand, ability to meet specifications, and delivery reliability were significantly more important than the other listed information sources or types. Multiple regression analysis showed that the ratings of a chance of a financial gain or loss were negatively related to the firms' store type in both scenarios and positively related to the buyers' experience in buying imported apparel in the high perceived risk scenario. In the low risk scenario, the buyers' frequency of being confronted with such a scenario was positively related to their rated chance of a financial loss or gain. Pearson correlations revealed mostly positive correlations between information sources and types of information. The results of this study show that perceived financial risk is an important variable in the apparel purchasing decision making process. Overall, the importance ratings of information sources and types of information are consistent with the findings of related previous studies.
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    Impact of quick response technology based attributes on consumer satisfaction/dissatisfaction among female apparel consumers
    Ko, Eunju (Virginia Tech, 1995-06-05)
    The purpose of this research was to test a conceptual model which examines consumer satisfaction/dissatisfaction (CS/D) with apparel retail stores and to investigate the moderating effects of shopping orientations and store type on confirmation/disconfirmation (C/DC) about quick response technologies (QRT) based attributes and CS/D with a retail store. Shopping orientation included fashion, economic, and time orientations. Store type included specialty chain, department, discount, and small independent stores. The conceptual framework for this study was based on retail strategic planning (Berman & Evans, 1992; Cory, 1988) and consumer satisfaction theory (Oliver, 1980). A convenience sample of 200 female apparel consumers was selected from a southeast city in the United States. The survey design employed a structured questionnaire with some open-ended questions. A questionnaire was pilot tested for content validity and instrument reliability. Descriptive statistics (Le., frequencies, percentages), multiple regressions, ANOVAs, and ANCOVA were used for data analysis to test the hypotheses. The response rate was 86.2 % for 200 usable responses. C/DC (i.e., QRT based, non-QRT based attributes) had significant effects on CS/D with apparel retail stores. The results supported the disconfirmation of expectation model (Oliver, 1980). C/DC of QRT based attributes (e.g. reduced stockout, fast turnaround of goods) have more influence on CS/D than C/DC of non-QRT based attributes (e.g., location of store, store hours). Results from a preliminary test indicated that QRT based attributes are improved by implementing QRT. The orientation of consumers is related to the level of C/DC of QRT based attributes, which determines CS/D. Fashion orientation, economic orientation, and store type were significant moderators between C/DC of QRT based attributes and CS/D with apparel retail stores. The retail QRT information assembled in the review of literature and the results of the study could help industry trade associations adjust their strategy for potential QRT adopters and promote QR implementation efficiently, and help retailers do strategic planning when they implement QRT.
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    Long-Term Relationship between Footwear Manufacturer and Consumers: Relationship Spiral Model of Encounter for Services and Goods through Internet Shopping
    Endo, Seiji (Virginia Tech, 2000-04-21)
    In the present market place situation, a consumer's main contact with manufacturing (i.e., the production process) is through retailers or other middlemen, such as mail order catalog companies. Consumers rarely complain, but when they do, consumers complain to or request information from retailers about products (Kincade, Redwine, & Hancock, 1992). Manufacturers rarely receive information directly from consumers. Instead, they get second-hand reports from retailers or they get no information at all. The purpose of this research was to explore the relationship between manufacturers and consumers during the relationship process using a mixed design of preexperimental research and panel analysis with in-depth interview. The major research question is: What will happen in the Relationship Spiral Model when the consumer becomes a part of the manufacturer /consumer relationship? Twenty female participants, out of 35 who answered the screening questionnaire, were selected from students and acquaintances of the researcher in Blacksburg, VA. For the experiment, a simulated web site was used by a consumer (i.e., participant) to order two pair of customized shoes based on each consumer's needs. In the preexperimental design for this study, a longitudinal case study with a panel study technique, as described by Babbie (1999) and Creswell (1994), was utilized to investigate consumer characteristics (i.e., demographics, shopping orientation, expectation, and experience), goods and service in encounter, and direct communication over time. The following procedure was conducted: (a) interviewing the subjects, (b) transcribing tapes and field notes, (c) segmenting data, (d) de-contextualizing data, (e) coding data, and (f) re-contextualizing data. Interpretational qualitative analysis was utilized for data analysis in this study. As a result of recontextualization of the interview scripts, the Relationship Spiral Model emerged from the data. Four sub-models for four groups were refined according to the data from the Relationship Spiral Model. Further analysis was conducted on sub-models. Consumers are constantly changing and have multiple selection criteria. These criteria are constantly changing based on expectations, experiences and other situational variables.
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    Polymerization-Crosslinking Fabric Finishing, With Pad-Dry-Cure, Using Nonformaldehyde Btca/IA/AA Combinations to Impart Durable Press Properties in Cotton Fabric
    Kittinaovarut, Siriwan (Virginia Tech, 1998-09-15)
    This study examined the mechanical and durable press properties of cotton 3/1 twill-woven fabrics finished with various concentrations of reactants in the BTCA/IA/AA combinations. The regression analysis was used to determine the relationship among each finishing variable, BTCA, IA, and AA concentrations, mole ratio of acid monomers to the sodium hypophosphite monohydrate catalyst, and curing times at 180°C, and the finished fabric's property variable, breaking strength, tear strength, wrinkle recovery angle whiteness index, and durable press rating. Based on the results of the reduced regression equations and range dispersion of mean values of finished fabric properties. The results of the study indicated the some BTCA/IA/AA combinations applied to cotton fabric provided good results in wrinkle recovery angle, breaking strength, and tear strength, comparable to those of the fabric finished with either BTCA only or DMDHEU reactant. The combinations of BTCA/IA/AA reactants did not provide as good whiteness index and durable press rating as the BTCA or DMDHEU reactant.
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    Relationship between apparel store satisfaction and patronage behaviors of black college-age consumers
    Davis, Kethley Renee (Virginia Tech, 1994-10-10)
    The purpose of this research was to determine the relationship between apparel store satisfaction and the patronage behavior of black college-age consumers. In addition, perceptions of the store attributes, the importance attached to the attributes, and personal characteristics were investigated separately and in relation to satisfaction. A need for this research exists because consumers’ satisfaction with the environments of retail establishments has not been researched as abundantly as satisfaction with products and services. It is important for retailers and students in clothing and textiles and business to understand the immense diversity among consumers if they are to market merchandise accurately and successfully. This study will be of value since it determines the level of retail satisfaction of the subjects since satisfaction needs to be understood before there is an understanding of patronage behavior and buying habits. Data were collected by convenience sampling on the Virginia Tech campus. Surveys were administered to students in four sections of an Introduction to Black Studies course in Spring 1994. The final sample size for this study was 90 subjects. Mean ratings of the responses were tabulated from each variables average item scores. The perception rating signified that the subjects’ general perceptions of the store personnel and atmosphere were between "neutral" and "slightly" positive on the scale. Importance ratings signified that the subjects found the store personnel and atmosphere components listed to be "very important” to "usually important". Satisfaction ratings signified that the subjects felt "satisfied" to "neutral" in relation to store personnel, atmosphere, and apparel stores in general. It was found that there is a significant relationship between the dependent variable, retail satisfaction and the independent variable, perception. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed the relationship between satisfaction with store atmosphere and perceptions of the store personnel and atmosphere to be the weakest relationship of the three satisfaction items. Correlation analyses showed no significant relationship exists between store satisfaction and the other variables, the importance attached to the image attributes, patronage behaviors, and demographics.
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    Relationships between body-cathexis, clothing benefits sought, and clothing behavior, and effects of importance of meeting the ideal body image and clothing attitude
    Hwang, Jinsook (Virginia Tech, 1996-06-17)
    Today, dissatisfaction with body image appears to be widespread. Few theoretical explanations have existed on why clothing can compensate for body dissatisfaction and on what clothing benefits are sought in relation to body satisfaction. Very limited studies exist on the relationships between satisfaction with different body areas and clothing behavior. The purpose of this study was to determine, for female college students, 1) the effects of body satisfaction on clothing benefits sought, clothing attitude, and clothing behavior and 2) the effects of importance of meeting the ideal body image on clothing benefits sought, clothing attitude, and clothing behavior. The sample included 177 female college students, aged 18 to 25, at Virginia Tech. To measure the variables, an instrument was developed based on previous studies. Body-cathexis and importance of meeting the ideal body image were measured for five areas of body parts: head/upper body, lower body, height, weight, and torso. Clothing benefits sought had five dimensions: fashion image, figure flaws compensation, sex appeal, self-improvement, and individuality. The clothing attitude measure was modified from that of Shim et al. (1991). Clothing behavior consisted of clothing preferences for fit/color/style/emphasis, satisfaction with the fit and variety in ready-to-wear, fashion innovativeness, and shopping behavior.
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    Roles of Perceptions of Reference Groups, Clothing Symbolism, and Clothing Involvement in Female Adolescents' Clothing Purchase Intentions and Clothing Behavior
    Elkins, Anne Fleet Dillard (Virginia Tech, 2010-09-08)
    The youth market has been characterized as one of the most coveted market segments because of its spending power and tremendous potential for becoming lifetime customers (Bush, Martin, & Bush, 2004). The product market for adolescents is expected to grow to more than $208 billion by 2011, according to a report from market research firm Packaged Facts (Sass, 2007). Apparel, jewelry, and cosmetics are top product categories for adolescent girls and are important products used by adolescents to portray personal identity (Ossorio, 1995). Because of adolescents' buying power and the important role apparel plays in adolescents' lives, it is important for apparel marketers to understand the adolescent consumer market. The purpose of this research was to examine the relationship between each of three independent variables (i.e., reference groups, clothing symbolism, and clothing involvement) and adolescents' clothing purchase intentions and clothing behavior, and whether the three variables are predictors of adolescents' clothing purchase intentions and clothing behavior. Reference groups are a source of instrumental and emotional support, offering adolescents a sense of belonging during their physical, emotional, and cognitive adjustment (Blackwell, Miniard, & Engel, 2001). Adolescents may have many different types of reference groups. The reference groups included in the currents study were friends, popular girls, and parents. Specifically in the current study, ninth grade girls' perceptions of friends' clothing behavior, popular girls' clothing behavior, and parents' opinions concerning clothing behavior were examined for their relationship to the ninth grade girls' clothing purchase intentions and behavior. The second independent variable was clothing symbolism. Adolescents may use clothing as a symbol (i.e., clothing symbolism) to express their actual self-concepts or to attain their ideal self-concepts (Erickson, 1983; Solomon & Rabolt, 2004). Two types of clothing symbolism were included in the study: the degree of congruity between actual self-concept and the perceived images of four outfits (i.e., actual self and clothing image congruity) and the degree of congruity between ideal self-concept and the perceived images of four outfits (i.e., ideal self and clothing image congruity). The third independent variable was clothing involvement. Viera (2009) found that young consumers are highly involved with clothing. The degree of clothing involvement may be closely related to adolescent girls' clothing purchase intentions and their clothing behavior. A conceptual model that formed the framework for this study was developed by integrating several theories, propositions, and research findings in the literature. Based on the framework, 16 research questions were formulated. Focus groups provided input for questionnaire development, and four outfit images, one each considered sexy, conservative, springy, or sporty, were identified and included in the questionnaire. Before the main data collection, the questionnaire was pilot tested and revised. Data collection was conducted at three high schools in central Virginia, and 353 female students in the ninth grade participated. Standard and stepwise multiple regression analyses were used to address the research questions. Among the four outfit images, that with a sexy image was found to have the highest mean score for ideal self-concept, indicating that participants would most like to view themselves sexy. Results of a factor analysis for clothing involvement revealed three factors: clothing importance, clothing expressions, and clothing brand perceptions. Participants had fairly high mean scores for all three clothing involvement factors. Among those three factors, clothing importance had the highest mean. In addition, results showed that participants perceived that their friends and popular girls would most often wear the outfit with a sporty image, and they also perceived that their parents would most like them to wear an outfit with a sporty image. The sporty outfit image also had the highest mean for participants' clothing purchase intentions and clothing behavior among the four outfit images. Results of one of the stepwise regressions, for the sexy outfit image showed that perceptions of reference groups' clothing behavior or opinions (i.e., friends' clothing behavior, parents' opinions concerning clothing behavior, popular girls' clothing behavior), one type of clothing symbolism (i.e., ideal self and clothing image congruity), and one clothing involvement factor (i.e., clothing importance) predicted adolescent girls' purchase intentions for the outfit with a sexy image. The results for wearing clothing with a sexy image when hanging out with friends were slightly different from those for purchase intentions. For the behavior of wearing an outfit with a sexy image, the variable "perceptions of popular girls' clothing behavior" was not a predictor, but actual self and clothing image congruity was. For the springy outfit image, all the perceptions of reference groups' clothing behavior or opinions and actual self and clothing image congruity were the best predictors of participants' clothing behavior; however only friends' clothing behavior and popular girls' clothing behavior were significant predictors of adolescent girls' purchase intentions for this outfit image. For the conservative and sporty outfit images, only the perceptions of reference groups' clothing behavior or opinions predicted adolescent girls' clothing purchase intentions and clothing behavior. In conclusion, the research findings suggest a powerful relationship between adolescent girls' perceptions of reference groups' clothing behavior or opinions about clothing behavior and the girls' own clothing behavior and purchase intentions. Participants' perceptions of reference groups' clothing behavior or opinions were the best predictors of the participants' clothing behavior and purchase intentions for all four outfits. Furthermore, clothing symbolism (e.g., using a sexy outfit to express or attain a sexy image) appears to motivate ninth grade girls to wear clothing with a sexy or springy image. The girls would wear a sexy outfit to portray their actual self-concepts and attain their ideal self-concepts. They also would wear outfits with a springy image to portray themselves. Additionally, the more the participants in this study considered clothing to be important, the more likely they were to purchase and wear a sexy image outfit; however the participants indicated that, of the four outfit images in the study, they most purchase and wear clothing like the sporty image outfit the most for hanging out with friends in comparison to the other three outfit images. Based on the findings, suggestions and implications for parents, educators, and marketers were provided.