Browsing by Author "Uysal, Muzaffer S."
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- Alternative Tourism: A Social Movement PerspectiveMcGehee, Nancy G. (Virginia Tech, 1999-06-24)This study develops and tests a theoretical model drawing on social psychological and resource-mobilization perspectives of social movement theory to explain changes in social movement participation and support for activism among Earthwatch Expedition volunteers. The social psychological perspective of social movements recognizes the role of self-efficacy and consciousness-raising for the participation in and success of social movement organizations. The resource mobilization perspective of social movements stresses rationality and the importance of funding and networks for the success of social movement organizations. Utilizing these two theoretical perspectives as my foundation, I hypothesize that participation in an Earthwatch Expedition increases volunteers' participation in social movement organizations in ways such as making monetary donations, voting with the organization's platform in mind, or attending rallies and marches. I also hypothesize that volunteers will increase their support for others who participate in these same types of activities. Earthwatch Expeditions are a form of alternative tourism in which volunteers participate in any of 126 different types of 10-14 day research-oriented expeditions that may include evaluating the health of a coral reef, studying maternal health among west African women, assessing the killer whale population off the coast of Puget Sound, or recording oral history in Dominica. I conducted pre- and post-trip surveys in June and July of 1998, resulting in 363 completed surveys. I analyzed data using multiple regression to discover relationships between pre-trip and post-trip measures of social movement participation, activism support, networks, self-efficacy, and consciousness-raising. In other words, I explored ways in which an alternative tourism experience like Earthwatch can change a person's ideas about their own social movement participation, the social movement activities of others, their perceived ability to overcome obstacles in order to implement social change, and their awareness of social issues. Results suggest that participation in an Earthwatch Expedition has a positive effect on volunteers' social movement participation, their awareness of social issues, their networks, and their ability to overcome obstacles, but little effect on activism support.
- Bed and breakfasts in Virginia: identification and success factorsKaufman, Tammie J. (Virginia Tech, 1994-04-18)Virginia bed and breakfast operations were researched in order to determine the attitudes/beliefs which were necessary for success in the bed and breakfast industry. The objectives of the study were to: (1) identify demographics of Virginia bed and breakfast operations; (2) identify successful bed and breakfast operations based upon their self definition of success; (3) identify the attitudes and beliefs operators believe are necessary for success in running a bed and breakfast operation and correlate attitudes with operators' actual behaviors; and (4) based upon the operator's self-definition of success, compare the correlations identified in the previous objective between successful and other operators. Data was collected by utilizing a mailed questionnaire. Pearson's correlation was used to determine if there were any relationships present between what attitudes/beliefs bed and breakfast operators perceived to be necessary for success and their actual behavior. Fishers r to z transformation was used ta determine if the relationship between the attitudes/beliefs perceived ta be necessary far success and operator's actual behavior was greater among successful bed and breakfast operations based upon a self definition of success. The results found that the correlation between the attitude/belief, past experience and actual past experience in hotels, restaurants, and large organizations was significant in the success group as well as high knowledge of cash flow/accounting and use of financial data. Stronger correlations were present in interpersonal skills, good relationship with employees and guests in the success group versus other group. Past experience in and knowledge of the bed and breakfast industry as well as family support were significantly correlated in the success group.
- Bureaucracy and Teachers' Sense of PowerYuÌ cel, Cemil (Virginia Tech, 1999-11-18)The purpose of this study was to explore the utility of Hall's (1961) conceptualization of Max Weber's (1946) theory of bureaucracy as an analytical tool in Turkey. The population was 1946 teachers in 91 public schools that employ five or more teachers. The instruments were distributed to 725 teachers in 68 schools in Karabuk province. Useable returns were 486. A pilot sample (one third of the useable returns) was generated to test the instruments by utilizing a series of item analyses. Remaining cases were used to answer the research questions in a separate sample. Items to measure bureaucracy derived from different versions of Hall's (1961) Organizational Inventory which operationalized six bureaucratic dimensions: hierarchy of authority, division of labor, rules and regulations, procedural specifications, impersonality, and technical competence. Item-analyses were done in the pilot sample. The surviving items were subjected to a factor analysis using the research sample. Generally, the factor structure of items obtained in the pilot sample was replicated in the research sample. Items measuring sense of power were also isolated from the literature and tested in the pilot sample. The surviving items were also subjected to a factor analysis in the research sample. The six moderately correlated bureaucratic dimensions clustered around two negatively related second-order factors. The first factor (control) was composed of hierarchy of authority, rules and regulations, procedural specifications, and formality in relations. The second factor (expertise) was composed of division of labor and technical competence. Based on control and expertise scores, teachers were classified into four typologies: Weberian, Collegial, Chaotic, and Authoritarian. Teachers in collegial cluster were the highest in sense of power and teachers in authoritarian cluster were the lowest in sense of power. Sense of power was inversely related to bureaucratization and positively related to expertise above and beyond the other relevant variables. It is concluded that there is support for the applicability of the western predisposition of bureaucracy to Turkish schools because of similar findings reported by western researchers. Max Weber's ideal theory of bureaucracy as it was operationalizaed by Hall is a useful analytical tool to examine the organizational structure of Turkish schools.
- Changes in Resident Perceptions Over Time: A Theoretical Examination of a Mega-EventBlosser, Phillip E. (Virginia Tech, 2009-08-05)Cities and countries increasingly seek mega-events to boost tourism, update local infrastructure, and improve the international standing of the host community. Benefits are actively promoted by the organizing committees, but these large-scale events also create significant economic, environmental and social costs for the host community. Measuring resident support is necessary because their support is required to secure the rights to the event, and to provide the necessary economic and human resources needed for hosting the event. This study utilized existing data on the 1996 Atlanta Olympic Games to investigate the impact of a mega-event on the host community, and to measure resident support for the event. Social exchange theory provided the theoretical background for this dissertation. The theory states that the costs and benefits of an exchange are continually re-evaluated by the actors in the exchange relationship. The primary contribution of this study is support for the notion that social exchanges are temporal in nature; residents continually monitored the positive and negative impacts of the event on themselves and on their community. To reach this conclusion, this study utilized four data points in the year leading up to the Olympics to assess the changes in residents’ perceptions of the impacts of the event over time. These changes were evaluated in light of residents’ support for the event. A factor analysis reduced the fifteen impact statements into three factors: Benefits, Local Problems, and External Problems. Residents were segmented according to their assessment of the event impacts, resulting in three clusters: Supporters, Cynics, and Realists. Proximity to the main event location also was evaluated since this variable has had mixed results in previous resident studies. Results showed that resident perceptions varied over time, thus providing support for monitoring residents over multiple time periods. In addition, residents’ support and residents’ plans to attend the event were contributing factors in the assessment of the Benefits and Local Problems. Supporters, Cynics, and Realists demonstrated significant differences over time in their assessment of External Problems, and proximity to the event was found to be a significant factor in residents’ assessment of Local Problems.
- Co-alignment Framework for Evaluating the Implementation of the Tourism Satellite Accounts - A Case study of TanzaniaSharma, Amit (Virginia Tech, 2002-06-17)The poor quality and fragmented state of international statistics for the hospitality and tourism sector lead international organizations like the World Tourism Organization (WTO), Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the United Nations to develop and recognize a universally acceptable framework of tourism statistics. These efforts culminated into the development of the Tourism Satellite Accounts (TSA), the very first sector specific Satellite System of Accounts approved by the United Nations. The WTO has since made numerous efforts to promote the implementation of the TSA, more so in the developing countries. While the process is gaining momentum, the implementation of the entire TSA framework is a tedious procedure requiring a high level of financial and non-financial resources. This paradox, of scarce resources required for TSA implementation in developing countries that are in most need of its benefits, has been the crucial motivation for this research project. The present study proposes a framework for evaluating the implementation of the TSA so that the process is manageable and is able to economize on various resources required to implement this comprehensive statistical database. Using Tanzania as the case study, this research verifies the proposed framework for evaluating the TSA's implementation. The underlying model for the proposed implementation framework is the Co-alignment principle from the field of Strategic Management. Evidence of existence of the characteristics of Co-alignment model's components is verified, given the particular experience of TSA implementation in Tanzania. The results suggest that the process in Tanzania is currently misaligned and may require reallocation of certain resources to increase the effectiveness of TSA implementation. In context of the Co-alignment principle, there is evidence that the end-user needs have not been explicitly established. There is also a lack of knowledge regarding gaps that exist between the current statistical databases and how the TSA would be able to fill these shortcomings. This is true for both additional datasets required and the much needed improvements in statistical methodology. Furthermore, there is no clear prioritization of implementation tasks, which is contributing to the lack of financial sustainability of the project. There is indication that the allocation of current resources is misaligned with the requirements for developing institutional capacity, training, stakeholder support, (particularly with the private sector operators) and building a stable legislative framework to support the entire process. Finally, there are no clear performance monitoring and evaluation criteria to assess the ongoing performance of the implementation process as well as that of the entire statistical database. This is crucial to insure effectiveness of the resource allocation process. The conclusions from these observations have been proposed as recommendations to align the process of TSA implementation in Tanzania with the objective of increasing the efficiency of these ongoing efforts at the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism. Furthermore, it has been suggested that the proposed evaluation framework can be used for assessing the effectiveness of implementing any generic national or regional statistical database.
- Comparative Analysis of Mature Travelers on the Basis of Internet UseCho, SeongMin (Virginia Tech, 2002-02-18)Travel and tourism marketers face a highly competitive environment brought on by the changing demographics of the U.S. population, the most significant change being the growth in size of the mature segment of the population. In terms of market size, there are currently 73 million people age 50 and older, comprising nearly one-fourth of the U.S. population (U.S. Census Bureau 2000). That number is expected to rise to 96 million by 2010, representing one-third of the population (Rasmusson 2000). A swelling population is not the only enticement that this age group offers. It is important to note that many mature consumers have deep pockets and a strong desire to spend. In fact, they control more than three-quarters of the wealth and one-half of the discretionary income in the nation. It is also estimated that they lay claim to three-fourths of the country's financial assets and boast more than $1 trillion in annual buying power. When all is said and done, this age group accounts for 40 percent of the total consumer demand in the United States (Swartz, 1999). However, even though recognizing the significance of the mature market in terms of their market size and economic potential, little research has been conducted to identify and understand the mature travelers who use the Internet.The main purpose of this study is to profile mature travelers on the basis of Internet use. More specifically, the intention is to examine the demographic and socio-economic characteristics of mature travelers who use the Internet compared to those who do not use the Internet. In addition, the purpose of the present study is to examine whether or not differences exist between Internet users and Internet non-users among mature travelers with respect to travel behavior. Attention is paid to investigate types of trip selected, the preferred activities participated in during the travel, length of stay, travel-related expenditures, type of lodging, type of transportation, number in the travel party, and type of travel party in explaining the differences between Internet users and Internet non-users of the mature market.Data were collected by utilizing a mailed questionnaire. 433 responses (23.44 percent of the total target population) were coded and used for data analysis. Data were analyzed by employing three types of data analysis: chi-square tests of independence; t-tests; and multiple discriminant analysis.The findings in the present study suggest that there are numerous differences in demographics, socio-economic characteristics, and travel characteristics between Internet users and Internet non-users among mature travelers. As a whole, for example, the results revealed that mature travelers who use the Internet were more likely to be younger, have higher annual household incomes, and have higher levels of education than mature travelers who do not use the Internet. Also, the results indicated that mature travelers who are still working are more likely to use the Internet than those who are not working. By understanding and utilizing information gathered from Internet users' and Internet non-users' demographics, socio-economic characteristics, and travel characteristics, tourism planners and marketers can develop appropriate and effective marketing strategies that appeal to mature travelers.
- A Comparative Analysis of the Travel Behavior of Black and White TravelersGailliard, Flora Montgomery (Virginia Tech, 1998-07-16)Tourism, leisure and recreation are considered to be an important form of interaction between cultures and are a basic part of social life (McMillen,1984; Hutchinson and Fidel,1985). The experiences received by participating in various tourism activities may be different due to racial influences. Although in general terms, travelers may have similarities, the ethnic heritage, social and cultural differences between different racial groups produce distinct patterns of leisure travel and recreational behavior. Demographic factors such as age, education, race, gender and income, occupation and residence may all be related to each other and determine the buying power of the consumer which thus influences travel behavior. African Americans represent more than $400 billion in purchasing power while comprising slightly over 12.5% of the U.S. population (Whigham-Desir,1996). As the largest non-white group in the U.S., African Americans continue to grow into a substantial force in the marketplace. More specifically, Blacks consume a diverse range of products and services. The results of a "Target Market News-The Buying Power of Black America" survey (1996) showed that blacks spent $1.8 billion dollars on entertainment and leisure and $4.2 billion in travel and lodging. According to Mroun and Whigham-Desir (1997), Blacks have an estimated $25 billion in travel spending power and as a result, are gaining the attention of the $440 billion U.S. travel industry. Research investigating the social conditions of marginality (lower income status, lower educational level, lower occupational status and segregated residence) in influencing travel behavior is sparse to none. Little focus has been placed on this relationship and how it affects travel behavior. The purpose of this study was to examine whether or not differences exist between black and white travelers with respect to travel behavior. More specifically, this study investigated whether the marginality predictors, income, education, occupation and residence contributed to differences between black and white travelers in the type of trips selected, length of stay and activities participated in during leisure travel, and whether these differences (if any) persist when controlled for race.The data were collected through telephone interviews with members of a sample of residents in the six southeastern states of Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina and Tennessee. Only those respondents who reported taking a leisure trip at least two nights away from home during the past year and those respondents who identified themselves as black or white were considered to participate in this study. A total of 500 surveys were completed of whom 225(45%) were black and 275 (55%) were white. Data were analyzed by involving three types of data analysis. Significant differences between the samples were identified using chi-square or difference of means tests. The effects of culture and of selected variables were assessed through log-linear modeling and analysis of variance. All of the hypotheses for this study were tested and partially confirmed. While important similarities existed among black and white travelers, findings of the study suggested that blacks and whites do significantly differ in terms of length of stay and income and occupation; type of trip and income, occupation and residence; activities and income, education, occupation and residence; and race and type of trip and race and activities. Tests of the effects of race as opposed to marginality predictors upon travel variables identified race as a predictor of leisure travel and the socio-economic covariates as significant predictors in some instances. Findings of the research suggest implications associated with the developing of effective marketing strategies targeted to the African American population and their estimated $25 billion in travel spending power.
- Consumer Choice of Hotel Experiences: The Effects of Cognitive, Affective, and Sensory AttributesKim, Dohee (Virginia Tech, 2011-07-06)Understanding the choice behavior of customers is crucial for effective service management and marketing in the hospitality industry. The first purpose of this dissertation is to examine the differential effects that cognitive, affective, and sensory attributes have on consumer hotel choice. The second purpose is to examine the moderating effects of consumer choice context on the relationship between the cognitive, affective, and sensory attributes and hotel choice. To achieve these two purposes, this dissertation includes the design of a choice experiment to examine how cognitive, affective, and sensory attributes predict consumer hotel choice using multinomial logit (MNL) and random parameter (or mixed) logit (RPL) models. For choice experiments, the main objectives are to determine the choice attributes and attribute levels to be used for the choice modeling and to create an optimal choice design. I used a Bayesian D-optimal design for the choice experiment, which I assess from the DOE (design of experiment) procedure outlined in JMP 8.0. The primary analysis associated with discrete choice analysis is the log-likelihood ratio (LR) test and the estimation of the parameters (known as part-worth utilities), using LIMDEP 9.0. The results showed that the addition of affective and sensory attributes to the choice model better explained hotel choice compared to the model with only cognitive attributes. The second purpose is to examine the moderating effects of choice context on the relationship between cognitive, affective, and sensory attributes and hotel choice. Using a stated choice model, respondents were randomly divided into two different groups and asked to evaluate their preference for two differently manipulated choice sets. For this purpose, it is necessary to include interaction effects in the choice model. This study identified the differences among choice criteria based on two different contexts. Among eight interaction effects, four interaction effects with the contexts -- price, comfortable, room quality, and atmosphere -- were statistically significant on hotel choice. The findings provide hotel managers with important insights and implications in terms of target segmentation, product development, and marketing communication strategy.
- Consumer involvement in ethnic restaurants: a measure of satisfaction/dissatisfactionLadki, Said M. (Virginia Tech, 1993-12-15)The purpose of this study was to evaluate whether consumer orientation (active/passive) and psychological involvement (attitude, opinion, belief, and behavioral intention) affect satisfaction when dining in an ethnic restaurant. The sample represented 232 consumers who dined in participating Washington D.C. metropolitan area ethnic restaurants. Information was obtained by asking consumers to answer a four part, 86 item questionnaire. Correlation analysis revealed that opinion (r = 0.17, P < 0.04), belief (r = 0.28, P < 0.01), and behavioral intentions (r = 0.19, P < 0.02) of the active consumer significantly affect satisfaction. Whereas, for the passive consumer no significant effect was found. Results of the stepwise regression analysis revealed that consumer psychological involvement and restaurant attributes affect satisfaction with service (R² = 0.57, p<0.05), satisfaction with lunch (R² = 0.8, p<0.05), satisfaction with dinner (R² = 0.33, p<0.05), and satisfaction with the overall dining experience (R² = 0.39, p<0.0l). Further, it was found that consumers' future visitations, within the next few weeks, were affected by consumer's psychological involvement (R² = 0.53, p<0.0l). Restaurant attributes (speed of service; employee courtesy; and food quality and prices) affected overall satisfaction in dining (R² = 0.4, p<0.0l), but it weakly affected future visitations (R² = 0.04, p<0.04, negative Mallows' Coefficient). The findings of this study contribute not only to consumer self-concept theory and satisfaction theory but also have practical implications to the ethnic restaurant industry.
- A Contemporary Turkish Coffeehouse Design Based on Historic TraditionsOral, Timur (Virginia Tech, 1997-04-16)The custom of coffee drinking in Turkey dates back to the sixteenth century coffeehouses of Istanbul, which were once important forums for community integration. Even though coffee drinking today is still an important custom in Turkey, traditional coffeehouses have lost their importance in urban areas and are rapidly being replaced by contemporary cafes that promote European themes. With the new generation placing less emphasis on traditional values and accepting a modernized lifestyle, the existence of Turkish coffeehouse culture is struggling to survive. The purpose of this thesis project was to develop a design concept for a contemporary Turkish coffeehouse franchise retaining important aspects of the traditional coffeehouses of the past. Historic features were identified through observations and visual recordings of historic Turkish coffeehouses and interviews with older patrons of traditional coffeehouses. Focus group discussions were held with graduate and undergraduate Turkish students enrolled at Virginia Tech to obtain information on their perceptions of traditional coffeehouses and responses to the idea of a contemporary coffeehouse. Based on the information gathered, design criteria were established for the design of individual coffeehouse components with a consistent image, adaptable to various sites and spaces. Coffeehouse logo, nameplate, and facade designs were proposed. Presentations for the design included detailed elevations, plans, sketches, and perspective views.
- Destination Attractiveness As A Function Of Supply And Demand InteractionFormica, Sandro (Virginia Tech, 2004-09-13)The driving force of the tourism industry is represented by the attractions at destination. Travelers have no reason to visit destinations that have nothing to offer. Tourism research has demonstrated that attraction studies are necessary in the understanding of the elements that encourage people to travel. Achieving the goal of measuring destination attractiveness requires the understanding of its components and their relationships. There are two ways of examining attractiveness: by studying the attractions or by exploring the attractiveness perceptions of those who are attracted by them. As competition among tourism destinations increases and tourist funding decreases, it is of vital importance to understand how the inventory of existing attractions at destination relates to the perceptions that travelers have of those attractions. Tourism literature provides only a limited number of studies addressing destination attractiveness. Those studies focus exclusively on the measurement aspect of attractiveness and ignore the analysis of its components. The purpose of this study was to generate a new measurement tool for destination attractiveness and to examine the relationship between its elements. The principles of regional analysis, tourism planning, and tourism attraction research provided the foundation for a measurement and hypothesis testing model. This model is based on the assumption that tourism is a system, which is a function of supply and demand interaction. Four attraction dimensions - tourism services and facilities, cultural/historical, rural lodging, and outdoor recreation - were found to represent the attractiveness portfolio of the destination. According to the findings, no correlations were found between demand and supply importance of the four dimensions. Among demand representatives, market segments perceive and value attractions in different ways. The study explored the attractiveness evaluation of eight tourist regions and discovered correlations between demand and supply indicators. Additionally, it was established that the overall regional measures of demand and supply destination attractiveness explain the economic benefits of tourism in the same region. Among the contributions of this study is the development of a model that allows the simultaneous empirical assessment of demand and supply indicators of destination attractiveness. The findings of this study provided important implications for the development of robust tourism plans, promotional strategies, and resource allocation policies.
- Destination Branding as an Informational Signal and its Influence on Satisfaction and Loyalty in the Leisure Tourism MarketHuh, Jin (Virginia Tech, 2006-06-28)This study provides an integrated approach to understanding the relationship between destination branding and tourist behavior, and attempts to extend the theoretical and empirical evidence about the structural relationships among the following constructs: destination image, perceived quality, destination awareness (elements of destination branding), tourist satisfaction, and tourist loyalty (elements of tourist behavior) in the leisure tourism market. This study develops and empirically tests a destination branding model and its relevant components from the perspectives of tourists, so that it will help destination marketers to build more competitive tourism destinations. The destination brand model is based on relationship marketing theory, signaling theory, and brand equity theory. The model proposed four major hypotheses: 1) destination branding has a direct positive influence on tourist loyalty; 2) destination branding has an indirect positive influence on tourist loyalty through tourist satisfaction; 3) tourist satisfaction has a positive influence on tourist loyalty; and 4) the relationship between destination branding and tourist satisfaction is moderated by trip types. A sample population consisting of residents of Virginia was surveyed. A stratified sampling method and a random sampling method were used to select the sample. A total of 304 usable questionnaires out of 2,000 questionnaires were collected. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to test hypotheses in this study. The results revealed that: 1) cognitive destination image and destination familiarity had a direct influence on tourist loyalty as well as an indirect influence on tourist loyalty through tourist satisfaction; 2) affective destination image had only an indirect impact on tourist loyalty through tourist satisfaction; 3) tourist satisfaction had a significant relationship with tourist loyalty; and 4) cognitive destination image, affective destination image, and destination recognition were moderated by trip types. This study can initiate the development of theoretical foundations for destination branding. Also, the implications of these findings can help destination managers and marketers build competitive strategies for destination branding in order to ensure long-term relationships between tourists and their destinations.
- Determinants of Successful Acquisition Management: A Process Perspective in the Lodging IndustryKim, Kyung-Hwan (Virginia Tech, 1998-08-20)The objective of this study was to uncover the critical success factors that have significant value-added impacts on corporate acquisitions in the lodging industry. Specifically, this study attempted to systematically discover evidence about the determinants of a successful pre-acquisition management process, and the determinants of successful post-acquisition integration, as well as to identify an appropriate evaluation criteria for determining the post-acquisition performance of an acquisition deal. In addition, this study tried to identify important acquisition objectives of hotel acquirers. This study employed an integrated and holistic viewpoint that includes the most critical corporate acquisition issues simultaneously and in a multi-dimensional framework. As a research methodology, a Delphi technique, which is a non-face-to-face communication method, was employed and proved its effectiveness throughout the study. The key question guiding this research is, what are the critical factors in the overall acquisition process that contribute to successful acquisitions? The findings of this study indicate that the most important acquisition objective for acquirers in the lodging industry is to accelerate the growth of their firms. Further, the most important critical success factor for hotel acquirers before the deal is completed is the identification of the trend of the target firm's cash flow from operations, and reliable and valid information about the target is the most significant dimension in the pre-acquisition management phase. The study results suggest that the most significant key success factor in the post-acquisition integration stage for the lodging industry is to plan and establish a post-acquisition strategy as early as possible, even before the deal is done, while the development of an effective post-acquisition transition strategy immediately after the deal is closed is the most crucial dimension in the post-acquisition integration phase. One of the most significant findings of this study was that hotel executives gave relatively higher importance to pre-acquisition management strategy than to the post-acquisition integration process. In terms of post-acquisition performance evaluation criteria, measures from a value-based management (VBM) approach received the highest rank in evaluating the economic gains of corporate acquisitions in the lodging industry. The study results can help to improve hospitality industry academics' and practitioners' understanding of important M&A phenomena leading to significant changes in the industry's competitive landscape.
- Determinants Of Urban Residents' Perceived Tourism Impacts: A Study on the Williamsburg and Virginia Beach AreasYoon, Yooshik (Virginia Tech, 1998-12-03)The existing research in the field of tourism has exhibited a clearer understanding of how residents perceive the dynamic and complex phenomena of tourism. Since the goals of tourism planning and development are to seek maximization of benefits and minimization of the costs of tourism, it is apparent that the effective evaluation of tourism impacts will be valuable information in successful strategies for tourism product development and operation. With these perspectives, this study attempted to investigate the underlying dimensions explaining residents' perceived tourism impacts and to identify relationships between determinants and residents' perceived tourism impacts. The social exchange theory provided a fundamental framework for this study. The dimensions of the tourism impacts were addressed by explicating economic, social/cultural, environmental/physical impacts of tourism development from literature review. Ten determinants which affect residents' perception were identified from past research on tourism impacts: birthplace, length of residency, community attachment, tourism related jobs, recreational activity, tourist contacts, tourism policy participation, travel experience, levels of tourism development, and growth of community. Norfolk/Virginia Beach/Newport News MSAs areas were selected as the study area because these areas provide fine multifaceted tourism attractions, generates many tourists, and influences the host community' life. A total of 316 useful respondents (13.2%) were analyzed by using the SPSS program. Two research questions were proposed. Factor analysis, multiple regression analysis, and multivariate analysis of variance (MANAOVA) were performed. From the findings of this study, residents perceived the impacts of tourism as five different dimensions embodying economic benefits, social costs, cultural enrichment, environmental deterioration, and physical enhancement. Their perceptions were affected by eight out of ten determinants. Generally, a higher level of tourism development and growth of community affects residents' perceptions of tourism impacts. Residents who were natives, who have higher community attachment, and who had been living in the research area for a shorter time period had more concerns about the perceived impacts of tourism. In addition, perceived tourism impacts were significantly differed across household incomes and ethnic groups. For future study, it is suggested that a further investigation of determinants affecting residents' perceptions is needed for better understanding and explanation of the impacts of tourism. It is believed that this study would help tourism planners and developers formulate and implement better strategies.
- A Determination of Interpersonal Interaction Expectations in International Buyer-Seller RelationshipsJones, David L. (Virginia Tech, 2000-03-24)Relationship/collaborative selling, as opposed to traditional, transaction oriented selling, stresses the need to form relationships with prospects and customers across all stages of the buyer-seller relationship (Jolson, 1997). The problem is that applying the relationship selling process to all types of customers may lead to inappropriate interpersonal interaction if the customer's orientation is only short-term in nature (Jackson, 1985a, 1985b). Anderson and Narus (1991) make the point that significant variations within industries (i.e., hotel industry) can exist in the buyer's expectation of working relationships with sellers, from a collaborative relationship desire to a transactional (i.e., discrete) relationship. This study developed and empirically tested a model of international buyer-seller relationships in the hospitality industry. The model analyzed several relationships: 1) the relationship between National Culture (Hofstede, 198oa, 1980b & 1997) and the interpersonal interaction "success" variables (i.e., structural bonding, social bonding, communication content, communication style, and trust) in the buyer-seller relationship (Wilson, 1995); 2) the relationship between the "success" variables and the outcomes of the buyer-seller relationship (i.e., relationship commitment and long-term orientation of the buyer); and 3) the relationship between the level of knowledge of the selling strategy used by the salesperson and the buying preferences of the buyer, as perceived by the salesperson. In addition, each of these relationships was examined in terms of the differences that may exist in base of operation of the salesperson (i.e., North America or Asia). The study specifically focused on the hotel industry salesperson and the relationship he or she has with his or her top account. The cross-cultural differences were captured by use of a sample of salespeople that were based either in North America or Asia. The results of this study showed that the relationship/collaborative selling strategy is not necessarily appropriate for all selling situations, but the salesperson may not be knowledgeable enough of his or her customer's preference for interpersonal interaction to be able to identify that fact. It also indicated that different importance is placed on different "success" variables in the buyer-seller relationship in different bases of operation. Specifically, trust is more important in North America than Asia, but it is still an important factor in both selling environments. It was also concluded that social bonding might be overrated in regards to the top account buyer-seller relationship. The conclusion can be made that more emphasis needs to be placed on the building and maintaining of trust than the need to "build a relationship" through social bonding, at least with the top account. The implications of the study can be applied to the improvement of how sales training is taught on a global basis.
- Development of a model to examine the determinants of demand for international hotel rooms in SeoulKim, Youngtae (Virginia Tech, 1996-10-15)The primary objective of this study was to develop an empirical model that accounts for factors affecting the demand for international tourist hotels, and that enables demand estimation and projection of demand, in the context of the metropolitan Seoul area. Models were hypothesized to explain market behavior of selected segments of the hotel industry. Demand Model I accounted for international hotel demand incorporating such explanatory variables as price, trade volume and events. Both demand and price were treated as endogenous variables and the time-dependent error processes were all examined. Demand Model I was further expanded by incorporating segmentation variables. The inclusion of segmentation variables into the model in Demand Model II enabled the analysis of the interdependence of market segments that affects demand. Along with the incorporation of a time series structure, a system of equations was employed for Demand Model II. The results indicated that the explanatory variables, which were own price, the number of events and the volume of trade, had a significant impact on international hotel demand. The results from the demand equations also revealed that the demand for a segment is significantly influenced by price and demand for other segments. A cross-segment substitution effect on the demand side is quite relevant for the international lodging market in Seoul and demand for a market segment fluctuates in the same direction as the total market demand changes. From the price equations, the market price of lodging services was found to be related to demand and supply influences simultaneously. The results also indicated that seasonality and economic factors, such as exchange rates and consumer price index, have significant influence directly on international lodging prices. Such factors also were found to have indirect effects on the demand level.
- Development of a Structural Model for Tourism Destination Competitiveness from Stakeholders' PerspectivesYoon, Yooshik (Virginia Tech, 2002-09-19)This study was conducted to theoretically develop and empirically test a structural equation model of tourism destination competitiveness from the tourism stakeholders'perspective. The proposed hypotheses that attempted to identify the structural relationships among the five constructs in the model were examined through a series of analyses in LISREL: 1) perceived tourism development impacts, 2) environmental attitudes, 3) place attachment, 4) development preferences about destination attractions/resources, and 5) support for destination competitive strategies The principle guideline of this study was that the support of tourism stakeholders for tourism planning and development is a key element for the successful operation, management, and long-term sustainability of tourism destinations. Tourism stakeholders' solid knowledge and experiences in tourism management and industry, professional involvement and participation in tourism planning and development, and long-term community observation and interactions have played an important role in tourism destination management. A total of 646 usable questionnaires were collected from randomly selected tourism stakeholders in the state of Virginia. From the results of hypotheses tests, tourism stakeholders' preferences about tourism attractions/ resources development are a function of perceived tourism development impacts as well as place attachment. The more stakeholders' preference for developing tourism attractions/resources, the more likely they were to support destination competitive strategies such as marketing efforts and activities, and destination management organizations' role. An additional finding that was not hypothesized indicated that tourism stakeholders, who have perceived benefits from tourism development, particularly in its economic and cultural aspects, are likely to support enhancement strategies for destination competitiveness. The implications of these findings can be applied to the enhancement of tourism destination competitiveness.
- Development of a Travelers' Information Search Behavior ModelGursoy, Dogan (Virginia Tech, 2001-12-03)In the dynamic global environment of today, understanding how travelers acquire information is important for marketing management decisions (Srinivasan 1990; Wilkie and Dickson 1985). For destination marketing managers, understanding information search behavior of travelers is crucial for designing effective marketing communication campaigns because information search represents the primary stage at which marketing can provide information and influence travelers' vacation decisions. Therefore, conceptual and empirical examinations of tourist information search behavior have a long tradition in tourism marketing literature (Etzel and Wahlers, 1985; Fodness and Murray, 1997, 1998, 1999; Perdue, 1985; Schul and Crompton, 1983; Snepenger and Snepenger 1993; Woodside and Ronkainen, 1980). Even though several studies examined travelers information search behavior and the factors that are likely to affect it, they all examined travelers' prior product knowledge as a uni-dimensional construct, most often referred to as destination familiarity or previous trip experiences (Woodside and Ronkainen, 1980). However, consumer behavior literature suggests that the prior product knowledge is not a uni-dimensional construct (Alba and Hutchinson). Alba and Hutchinson (1987) propose that prior product knowledge has two major components, familiarity and expertise, and cannot be measured by a single indicator. In addition, in tourism, little research has been done on the factors that are likely to influence travelers' prior product knowledge and, therefore, their information search behavior. The purpose of this study is to examine travelers' information search behavior by studying the effects of travelers' familiarity and expertise on their information search behavior and identifying the factors that are likely to influence travelers' familiarity and expertise and their information search behavior. A travelers' information search behavior model and a measurement instrument to assess the constructs of the model were designed for the use of this study. The model proposed that the type of information search (internal and/or external) that is likely to be utilized will be influenced by travelers' familiarity and expertise. In addition, travelers' involvement, learning, prior visits and cost of information search are proposed to influence travelers' familiarity and their information search behavior. Even though a very complex travelers' information search behavior model was proposed, only the effects of travelers' prior product knowledge (familiarity and expertise) on travelers' information search behavior were empirically tested due to the complex nature of the model. First the proposed measurement scales were pretested on 224 consumers. After making sure that proposed measures of each construct were valid and reliable, a survey of 470 consumers of travel/tourism services who reside in Virginia was conducted. Structural Equation Modeling (i.e., LISREL) analysis was performed to test the fit of the model. Results of the study confirmed that travelers' prior product knowledge has two components, familiarity and expertise, and expertise is a function of familiarity. Both familiarity and expertise affect travelers' information search behavior. While the effect of familiarity on internal search is positive and on external search is negative, the effect of expertise on internal search is negative and on external search is positive. The study identified a U-shaped relationship between travelers' prior product knowledge and external information search. At early stages of learning (low familiarity), travelers are likely to rely on external information sources to make their vacation decisions. As their prior product knowledge (familiarity) increases they tend to make their vacation decisions based on what is in their memory, therefore, reliance on external information sources decreases. However, as they learn more (become experts), they realize that they need more detailed information to make their vacation decisions. As a result, they start searching for additional external information to make their vacation decisions.
- Economic Sentiment Indicator as a Demand Determinant in Tourism: A Case of TurkeyAltin, Mehmet (Virginia Tech, 2011-04-28)Tourism is one of the fastest growing industries in the world, employing approximately 220 million people and generating over 9.4% of the world's GDP. The growing contribution of tourism is accompanied by an increased interest in understanding the major factors which influence visitation levels to those countries. Therefore, finding the right variables to understand and estimate tourism demand becomes very important and challenging in policy formulations. The purpose of this study is to introduce Economic Sentiment Indicator (ESI) to the field of tourism demand studies. Using ESI in demand analysis, this study will assist in the ability to tap into individuals' hopes and/or worries for the present and future. The study developed a demand model in which the number of tourist arrivals to Turkey from select EU countries is used as the dependent variable. ESI along with more traditional variables such as Interest Rate, Relative Price, and Relative Exchange Rate were brought into the model as the independent demand determinants. The study utilized such econometric models as ARIMA for seasonality adjustment and ARDL Bound test approach to cointegration for the long and short-run elasticities. ESI was statistically significant in 8 countries out of 13, three of those countries had a negative coefficient and five had a positive sign as proposed by the study. The study posits that ESI is a good indicator to gauge and monitor tourism demand and adding the visitors' state of mind into the demand equation could reduce errors and increase variance in arrivals. Policy makers should monitor ESI as it fluctuates over time. Since we do not have direct influence on travelers' demand for tourism, it is imperative that we use indirect approaches such as price adjustment and creating new packages or promotional expenditures in order to influence or induce demand. Using this information generated from the study, government officials and tourism suppliers could adjust their promotional activities and expenditures in origin countries accordingly.
- ECOSERV: an examination of the service quality expectations of the ecotouristsKhan, Maryam M. (Virginia Tech, 1996-12-05)The concept of service quality is gaining global importance in hospitality/tourism industry, and ecotourism is regarded as one of its fastest growing segment. The main objective of this study was to examine the relationship between ecotourist's environmental attitude, environmental behavior, travel motivation, value dimension, and their service quality expectations. A conceptual model was developed to study these relationships. The service quality expectations of the ecotourists were measured by ECOSERV - an adapted version of SERVQUAL scale. The results of the study suggest a significant relationship between service quality expectations of the ecotourists and their environmental and travel behavior. Pearson's correlation analysis revealed the direction of the relationship which supports the notion that those with positive attitude and behavior toward the environment most likely prefer services that are environmentally friendly. Also, it was evident that when reasons to travel are intercultural and social, services with local cultural influence were most likely to be expected from an ecotourist business. Canonical correlation analysis revealed three significant variate pairs (functions). The interpretation of the first pair indicated that ecotourists who perceive the ecotourist business to help/benefit the community and who have an ecocentric attitude toward the environment, tend to expect more of those services that are courteous, informative, trustworthy, in addition to environmentally friendly facilities/equipment. The second pair revealed that when the attitude and behavior toward the environment is not positive, and reasons to travel are not intercultural, services are expected to be performed on promised time, with prompt personal and individual attention. The third pair suggested that when there is no interest in intercultural social interactions but there is an ecocentric attitude toward the environment, the service preference tend to be for facilities that are safe/appropriate to the environment, and equipment that minimize environmental degradation. Also, it was evident that service quality expectations of the ecotourists are somewhat influenced by their attitude toward the environment, their behavior patterns, reasons to travel, and emphasis on value. The study contributed to the theoretical and methodological advancement of service quality and ecotourism literature by developing ECOSERV, a scale to measure the service quality expectations of the ecotourists. It provided practical and marketing implications for the ecotourist industry which can be useful to the ecotourist marketers, tour operators and destination promoters, to target specific markets, design products and services, plan communication strategies, and promote tourism that is sustainable.
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