School of Public and International Affairs (SPIA)

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Addressing Inequality: The First Step Beyond COVID-19 and Towards Sustainability
Ashford, Nicholas A.; Hall, Ralph P.; Arango-Quiroga, Johan; Metaxas, Kyriakos A.; Showalter, Amy L. (MDPI, 2020-07-03)
The COVID-19 pandemic has impacted billions of lives across the world and has revealed and worsened the social and economic inequalities that have emerged over the past several decades. As governments consider public health and economic strategies to respond to the crisis, it is critical they also address the weaknesses of their economic and social systems that inhibited their ability to respond comprehensively to the pandemic. These same weaknesses have also undermined efforts to advance equality and sustainability. This paper explores over 30 interventions across the following nine categories of change that hold the potential to address inequality, provide all citizens with access to essential goods and services, and advance progress towards sustainability: (1) Income and wealth transfers to facilitate an equitable increase in purchasing power/disposable income; (2) broadening worker and citizen ownership of the means of production and supply of services, allowing corporate profit-taking to be more equitably distributed; (3) changes in the supply of essential goods and services for more citizens; (4) changes in the demand for more sustainable goods and services desired by people; (5) stabilizing and securing employment and the workforce; (6) reducing the disproportionate power of corporations and the very wealthy on the market and political system through the expansion and enforcement of antitrust law such that the dominance of a few firms in critical sectors no longer prevails; (7) government provision of essential goods and services such as education, healthcare, housing, food, and mobility; (8) a reallocation of government spending between military operations and domestic social needs; and (9) suspending or restructuring debt from emerging and developing countries. Any interventions that focus on growing the economy must also be accompanied by those that offset the resulting compromises to health, safety, and the environment from increasing unsustainable consumption. This paper compares and identifies the interventions that should be considered as an important foundational first step in moving beyond the COVID-19 pandemic and towards sustainability. In this regard, it provides a comprehensive set of strategies that could advance progress towards a component of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 10 to reduce inequality within countries. However, the candidate interventions are also contrasted with all 17 SDGs to reveal potential problem areas/tradeoffs that may need careful attention.
Addressing the Contribution of Indirect Potable Reuse to Inland Freshwater Salinization
Bhide, Shantanu V.; Grant, Stanley B.; Parker, Emily A.; Rippy, Megan A.; Godrej, Adil N.; Kaushal, Sujay S.; Prelewicz, Gregory; Saji, Niffy; Curtis, Shannon; Vikesland, Peter J.; Maile-Moskowitz, Ayella; Edwards, Marc A.; Lopez, Kathryn; Birkland, Thomas A.; Schenk, Todd (2021-02-02)
Inland freshwater salinity is rising worldwide, a phenomenon called the freshwater salinization syndrome (FSS). We investigate a potential conflict between managing the FSS and indirect potable reuse, the practice of augmenting water supplies through the addition of reclaimed wastewater to surface waters and groundwaters. From time-series data collected over 25 years, we quantify the contributions of three salinity sources—a wastewater reclamation facility and two rapidly urbanizing watersheds—to the rising concentration of sodium (a major ion associated with the FSS) in a regionally important drinking water reservoir in the Mid-Atlantic United States. Sodium mass loading to the reservoir is primarily from watershed runoff during wet weather and reclaimed wastewater during dry weather. Across all timescales evaluated, sodium concentration in the reclaimed wastewater is higher than in outflow from the two watersheds. Sodium in reclaimed wastewater originates from chemicals added during wastewater treatment, industrial and commercial discharges, human excretion, and down-drain disposal of drinking water and sodium-rich household products. Thus, numerous opportunities exist to reduce the contribution of indirect potable reuse to sodium pollution at this site, and the FSS more generally. These efforts will require deliberative engagement with a diverse community of watershed stakeholders and careful consideration of the local political, social, and environmental context.
Amenities, affordability, and housing vouchers
Bieri, David S.; Dawkins, Casey J. (Blackwell Publishing Inc., 2018-06-19)
Against the background of an emerging rental affordability crisis, we examine how the standard rule that households should not spend more than 30% of their income on housing expenditures leads to inefficiencies in the context of federal low-income housing policy. We quantify how the current practice of locally indexing individual rent subsidies in the Housing Choice Voucher (HCV) program regardless of quality-of-life conditions implicitly incentivizes recipients to live in high-amenity areas. We also assess a novel scenario for housing policy reform that adjusts subsidies by the amenity expenditures of low-income households, permitting national HCV program coverage to increase. © 2018 The Authors. Journal of Regional Science published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
An Assessment of Government Capacity Building to Restrict the Marketing of Unhealthy Food and Non-Alcoholic Beverage Products to Children in the Region of the Americas
Rincón-Gallardo Patiño, Sofía; da Silva Gomes, Fabio; Constantinou, Steven; Lemaire, Robin Hargroder; Hedrick, Valisa E.; Serrano, Elena L.; Kraak, Vivica (MDPI, 2021-08-06)
The Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) Strategic Plan 2020–2025 committed to reduce children’s consumption of energy-dense nutrient-poor food and beverage products high in fat, sugar and salt (HFSS) and promote healthy eating patterns to reduce malnutrition in all forms. This paper describes the capacity-building needs in PAHO’s Member States to restrict the marketing of HFSS food and beverages to children. We asked Ministries of Health officials or national institutes/departmental representatives (n = 35) to complete a 28-item web-based survey (January to July 2020). Capacity-building needs were assessed using an adapted version of the World Health Organization’s government capacity-building framework with three modules: public health infrastructure, policies and information systems. Notable achievements for the PAHO’s Plan of Action were identified. State representatives reported strong infrastructure and information systems; however, policy improvements are needed to increase comprehensive national responses. These include using a constitutional health and human rights approach within the policies, policies that document conflict of interest from non-state actors, and strengthening regulatory oversight for digital media platforms. These findings provide baseline data and we suggest priorities for further action to strengthen national governments’ capacity-building and to accelerate the development, implementation, and monitoring systems to restrict the marketing of HFSS food and non-alcoholic beverages to children in the region of the Americas.
Built Environment Determinants of Pedestrian Activities and Their Consideration in Urban Street Design
Gerike, Regine; Koszowski, Caroline; Schröter, Bettina; Buehler, Ralph; Schepers, Paul; Weber, Johannes; Wittwer, Rico; Jones, Peter (MDPI, 2021-08-20)
Pedestrian facilities have been regarded in urban street design as “leftover spaces” for years, but, currently, there is a growing interest in walking and improving the quality of street environments. Designing pedestrian facilities presents the challenge of simultaneously accommodating (1) pedestrians who want to move safely and comfortably from point A to B (movement function); as well as (2) users who wish to rest, communicate, shop, eat, and enjoy life in a pleasant environment (place function). The aims of this study are to provide an overview of how the task of designing pedestrian facilities is addressed in international guidance material for urban street design, to compare this with scientific evidence on determinants of pedestrian activities, and to finally develop recommendations for advancing provisions for pedestrians. The results show that urban street design guidance is well advanced in measuring space requirements for known volumes of moving pedestrians, but less in planning pleasant street environments that encourage pedestrian movement and place activities. A stronger linkage to scientific evidence could improve guidance materials and better support urban street designers in their ambition to provide safe, comfortable and attractive street spaces that invite people to walk and to stay.
Carnivore–livestock conflicts in Chile: evidence and methods for mitigation
Rodriguez, Valeska; Poo-Muñoz, Daniela A.; Escobar, Luis E.; Astorga, Francisca; Medina-Vogel, Gonzalo (Berryman Institute, 2019)
Human population growth and habitat loss have exacerbated human–wildlife conflicts worldwide. We explored trends in human–wildlife conflicts (HWCs) in Chile using scientific and official reports to identify areas and species with higher risk of conflicts and tools available for their prevention and mitigation. The puma (Puma concolor) was considered the most frequent predator; however, fox (Lycalopex spp.) and free-ranging or feral dog (Canis lupus familiaris) attacks were also common. Our results suggest that the magnitude of puma conflicts may be overestimated. Domestic sheep (Ovis spp.) and poultry (Galliformes) were the most common species predated. Livestock losses were widespread across Chile but were highest in San Jose de Maipo, located in central Chile, and Cochrane, La Unión, and Lago Verde in south Chile municipalities. Livestock guardian dogs and the livestock insurance, as a part of the Agriculture Insurance of Chile, were identified as the most promising tools to mitigate HWCs, short- and mid-term, respectively. However, longer-term strategies should focus on improving livestock management through extension (i.e., farmer education) programs for local communities. In Chile, HWCs negatively impact small farmers and wild carnivore populations. An interinstitutional and interdisciplinary strategy integrating input from government and nongovernmental organizations, farmers, and academia is needed to achieve effective carnivore conservation in the long-term.
Central Banks and the Governance of Monetary Space
Bieri, David S. (2019-04-04)
Combining expert and crowd-sourced training data to map urban form and functions for the continental US
Demuzere, Matthias; Hankey, Steven C.; Mills, Gerald; Zhang, Wenwen; Lu, Tianjun; Bechtel, Benjamin (2020-08-11)
Although continental urban areas are relatively small, they are major drivers of environmental change at local, regional and global scales. Moreover, they are especially vulnerable to these changes owing to the concentration of population and their exposure to a range of hydro-meteorological hazards, emphasizing the need for spatially detailed information on urbanized landscapes. These data need to be consistent in content and scale and provide a holistic description of urban layouts to address different user needs. Here, we map the continental United States into Local Climate Zone (LCZ) types at a 100 m spatial resolution using expert and crowd-sourced information. There are 10 urban LCZ types, each associated with a set of relevant variables such that the map represents a valuable database of urban properties. These data are benchmarked against continental-wide existing and novel geographic databases on urban form. We anticipate the dataset provided here will be useful for researchers and practitioners to assess how the configuration, size, and shape of cities impact the important human and environmental outcomes.
The Complex Relationship between Capacity and Infrastructure Project Delivery: The Case of the Indian National Urban Renewal Mission
An, Yehyun; Hall, Ralph P.; Yoon, Taekwan (MDPI, 2021-08-20)
Capacity development (CD) interventions are becoming a vital component of development projects. However, there is a lack of information about the relationships between capacity and project delivery. This paper presents the results of a study of how CD was applied to one of India’s largest urban infrastructure programs. While the Indian government considered a lack of capacity to be the main problem in project delivery, there is little evidence that explains the relationships between capacity and project delivery. This study analyzes the content of 58 interviews with project engineers, managers, and administrators about the hurdles they experienced at each stage of project delivery and seeks to understand these hurdles through the lens of CD. The study identifies the influence of capacity factors on project delivery and the converse influence of project performance and outcomes on CD. Ultimately, this study reveals the complex two-way interactions between capacity and project delivery.
Cyberbiosecurity: A New Perspective on Protecting US Food and Agricultural System
Duncan, Susan E.; Reinhard, Robert; Williams, Robert C.; Ramsey, A. Ford; Thomason, Wade E.; Lee, Kiho; Dudek, Nancy; Mostaghimi, Saied; Colbert, Edward; Murch, Randall Steven (Frontiers, 2019-03-29)
Our national data and infrastructure security issues affecting the "bioeconomy" are evolving rapidly. Simultaneously, the conversation about cyber security of the U.S. food and agricultural system (cyber biosecurity) is incomplete and disjointed. The food and agricultural production sectors influence over 20% of the nation's economy ($ 6.7T) and 15% of U.S. employment (43.3M jobs). The food and agricultural sectors are immensely diverse and they require advanced technologies and efficiencies that rely on computer technologies, big data, cloud-based data storage, and internet accessibility. There is a critical need to safeguard the cyber biosecurity of our bio economy, but currently protections are minimal and do not broadly exist across the food and agricultural system. Using the food safetymanagement Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point systemconcept as an introductory point of reference, we identify important features in broad food and agricultural production and food systems: dairy, food animals, row crops, fruits and vegetables, and environmental resources (water). This analysis explores the relevant concepts of cyber biosecurity from food production to the end product user (such as the consumer) and considers the integration of diverse transportation, supplier, and retailer networks. We describe common challenges and unique barriers across these systems and recommend solutions to advance the role of cyber biosecurity in the food and agricultural sectors.
Cycling behaviour in 17 countries across 6 continents: levels of cycling, who cycles, for what purpose, and how far?
Goel, Rahul; Goodman, Anna; Aldred, Rachel; Nakamura, Ryota; Tatah, Lambed; Garcia, Leandro Martin Totaro; Diomedi-Zapata, Belen; de Sa, Thiago Herick; Tiwari, Geetam; de Nazelle, Audrey; Tainio, Marko; Buehler, Ralph; Gotschi, Thomas; Woodcock, James (2021-05-09)
International comparisons of cycling behaviour have typically been limited to high-income countries and often limited to the prevalence of cycling, with lack of discussions on demographic and trip characteristics. We used a combination of city, regional, and national travel surveys from 17 countries across the six continents, ranging from years 2009 through 2019. We present a descriptive analysis of cycling behaviour including level of cycling, trip purpose and distance, and user demographics, at the city-level for 35 major cities (>1 million population) and in urbanised areas nationwide for 11 countries. The Netherlands, Japan and Germany are among the highest cycling countries and their cities among the highest cycling cities. In cities and countries with high cycling levels, cycling rates tend to be more equal between work and non-work trips, whereas in geographies with low cycling levels, cycling to work is higher than cycling for other trips. In terms of cycling distance, patterns in high- and low-cycling geographies are more similar. We found a strong positive association between the level of cycling and women's representation among cyclists. In almost all geographies with cycling mode share greater than 7% women made as many cycle trips as men, and sometimes even greater. The share of cycling trips by women is much lower in geographies with cycling mode shares less than 7%. Among the geographies with higher levels of cycling, children (<16 years) are often overrepresented. Older adults (>60 years) remain underrepresented in all geographies but have relatively better representation where levels of cycling are high. In low-cycling settings, females are underrepresented across all the age groups, and more so when older than 16 years. With increasing level of cycling, representation of females improves across all the age groups, and most significantly among children and older adults. Clustering the cities and countries into homogeneous cycling typologies reveals that high cycling levels always coincide with high representation of females and good representations of all age groups. In low-cycling settings, it is the reverse. We recommend that evaluations of cycling policies include usage by gender and age groups as benchmarks in addition to overall use. To achieve representation across different age and gender groups, making neighbourhoods cycling friendly and developing safer routes to school, should be equally high on the agenda as cycling corridors that often cater to commuting traffic.
Does Rural Water System Design Matter? A Study of Productive Use of Water in Rural Nepal
GC, Raj K.; Ranganathan, Shyam; Hall, Ralph P. (MDPI, 2019-09-23)
In Nepal, rural water systems (RWS) are classified by practitioners as single-use domestic water systems (SUS) or multiple-use water systems (MUS). In the rural hills of Nepal, subsistence farming communities typically use RWS to support income-generating productive activities that can enhance rural livelihoods. However, there is limited research on the extent of existing productive activity and the factors enabling these activities. This paper examines the extent of water-related productive activities and the factors driving these activities based on a study, undertaken between October 2017 to June 2018, of 202 households served from five single-use domestic water systems and five multiple use water systems in the mid-hills of Nepal. The research found that a majority (94%) of these households engaged in two or more productive activities including growing vegetables and horticulture crops, raising livestock, and producing biogas and Rakshi (locally-produced alcohol), regardless of the system design, i.e., SUS vs. MUS. Around 90% of the households were engaged in productive activities that contributed to over 10% of their mean annual household income ($4,375). Since the SUS vs. MUS classification was not found to be a significant determinant of the extent of productive activity, the households were reclassified as having high or low levels of productive activity based on the quantity of water used for these activities and the associated earned income. A multinomial logistic regression model was developed to measure the relative significance of various predictors of high productive activity households. Five dominant predictors were identified: households that farm as a primary occupation, use productive technologies, are motivated to pursue productive activities, have received water-related productive activity training, and have received external support related to productive activities. Whereas MUS are designed for productive activity, nearly every household in SUS communities was involved in productive activities making them ‘de-facto’ MUS. These results challenge the current approach to rural water provision that views SUS and MUS as functionally different services.
Exploring neighborhood-level resilience to flooding: Why the context and scale matter
Bukvic, Anamaria; Borate, Aishwarya; Hughes, Shereen; Weaver, Ross; Imburgia, David; Stiles, William A. (2021-03-10)
This article explores the role of contextual neighborhood-level considerations in community resilience planning in coastal urban locations. A comparative case study analysis was conducted in three different locations in the City of Hampton, Virginia, that all share a common challenge of coastal flooding but have distinctly different neighborhood-level circumstances that shape their flood impacts and resilience building options. The research approach utilizes a co-production of knowledge and descriptive statistics to identify the overall flood risk and socioeconomic attributes of each locality that may influence broader citywide resilience investments within the realm of three overarching options: protection, accommodation, and relocation. It then applies a geospatial network analysis to determine which study neighborhoods will have significantly reduced access to critical facilities such as emergency services, medical facilities, and schools due to accelerated sea level rise as one of the key coastal hazards in this low-lying region. The results show that each case study location has its own unique contextual circumstances that define its preferences for different resilience strategies regardless of the actual flood risk. The results also highlight the importance of holistic assessment of granular conditions that play a critical role in prioritization of resource allocation and interventions in coastal municipalities.
Exploring the Relationship between Combined Household Housing and Transportation Costs and Regional Economic Activity in Virginia
Sanchez, Thomas W. (MDPI, 2021-07-15)
Transportation is the second-largest expenditure category for households, accounting for nearly 20 cents of every dollar spent annually across the U.S. Only housing costs exceed transportation, and combined they represent a substantial burden on households. A primary economic connection between housing and transportation costs is related to the tradeoffs that households make in terms of residential location and what they have left of their household budget to spend on other needs. Families are forced to spend thousands of dollars annually on owning and operating private vehicles, forego wealth creation, and the ability to enjoy other benefits of homeownership. This analysis examines combined housing and transportation costs at the state level to regional economic performance. It contributes to the literature by testing the geographic scope of household expenditure burdens at this scale. Along with previous literature, this analysis provides evidence about the connection between the local and regional economic vitality and the burden of the combined effects of housing and transport on households. Overall, the results suggest that, from 2008 to 2018, these household cost burdens were a function of economic activity, household characteristics, and location in the state of Virginia.
A General Micro-Level Modeling Approach to Analyzing Interconnected SDGs: Achieving SDG 6 and More through Multiple-Use Water Services (MUS)
Hall, Ralph P.; Ranganathan, Shyam; GC, Raj K. (MDPI, 2017-02-21)
The 2030 agenda presents an integrated set of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and targets that will shape development activities for the coming decade. The challenge now facing development organizations and governments is how to operationalize this interconnected set of goals and targets through effective projects and programs. This paper presents a micro-level modeling approach that can quantitatively assess the impacts associated with rural water interventions that are tailored to specific communities. The analysis focuses on how a multiple-use water services (MUS) approach to SDG 6 could reinforce a wide range of other SDGs and targets. The multilevel modeling framework provides a generalizable template that can be used in multiple sectors. In this paper, we apply the methodology to a dataset on rural water services from Mozambique to show that community-specific equivalents of macro-level variables used in the literature such as Cost of Illness (COI) avoided can provide a better indication of the impacts of a specific intervention. The proposed modeling framework presents a new frontier for designing projects in any sector that address the specific needs of communities, while also leveraging the knowledge gained from previous projects in any country. The approach also presents a way for agencies and organizations to design projects or programs that bridge sectors/disciplines (water, irrigation, health, energy, economic development, etc.) to advance an interconnected set of SDGs and targets.
Geography and the Environment Through Kitchenspace: Cultural Ecology in the House-lot Garden in Central Mexico
Christie, Maria Elisa (Virginia Tech. University Libraries, 2018-03-16)
The WGD program at CIRED has conducted a monthly discussion series for over a decade. Students, faculty, staff and members of the community are encouraged to attend the discussions and bring their ideas and questions. The series offers an opportunity for scholars and development practitioners to share their research and knowledge surrounding gender and international development with the Virginia Tech community and beyond.
Guidance and Practice in Planning Cycling Facilities in Europe—An Overview
Schröter, Bettina; Hantschel, Sebastian; Koszowski, Caroline; Buehler, Ralph; Schepers, Paul; Weber, Johannes; Wittwer, Rico; Gerike, Regine (MDPI, 2021-08-25)
The provision of convenient, safe and seamless facilities for cyclists is one core success factor in promoting cycling as a mode of transport. Cycling infrastructures and planning philosophies differ greatly between countries, but there is no systematic overview or comparison of similarities and dissimilarities. The aim of this study is to provide an in-depth international overview of guidance material for cycling facilities in European countries and to develop recommendations for advancing provisions for cyclists. International guidance materials for cycling facilities along street sections are collated, systemised and compared. For researchers, the findings provide background information to better understand cycling behaviour and safety. For planners, the findings support their efforts to support cycling and to improve guidance materials. The results show that, in general, countries that are just beginning to promote cycling tend to offer a greater variety of cycling infrastructures in their guidance materials than more mature cycling countries. Countries differ in whether they prefer to put cyclists on the street level or on the sidewalk and whether they mix cyclists with other user groups in the same space. There was even greater variability among countries in the criteria for selecting types of cycling facilities than in the design characteristics (width, buffer zones, etc.).
Household-Level Spatiotemporal Patterns of Incidence of Cholera, Haiti, 2011
Blackburn, Jason K.; Diamond, Ulrica; Kracalik, Ian T.; Widmer, Jocelyn M.; Brown, Will; Morrissey, B. David; Alexander, Kathleen A.; Curtis, Andrew J.; Ali, Afsar; Morris, J. Glenn Jr. (2014-09)
A cholera outbreak began in Haiti during October, 2010. Spatiotemporal patterns of household-level cholera in Ouest Department showed that the initial clusters tended to follow major roadways; subsequent clusters occurred further inland. Our data highlight transmission pathway complexities and the need for case and household-level analysis to understand disease spread and optimize interventions.
Innovations and Development in Urban Planning Scholarship and Research
Sanchez, Thomas W. (Cogitatio, 2021-02-24)
Urban planning is characterized by involving a wide range of experts from a variety of fields. Therefore, planning research draws upon each of these fields in how it interprets an examines the natural and built environment as elements of human settlement activities. As a small professional and academic discipline incorporating aspects of design, policy, law, social sciences, and engineering, it is understandable that research outcomes are published in a broad range of academic outlets. It is useful for us to reflect on our research intentions, processes, and outcomes, which is also referred to as ‘research about research,’ with a focus on the scholarly products of urban planning academics. We can do this by examining our methodologies, subdomains, application of research to practice, research impact, and bibliometrics. The purpose of reflecting on our research helps us better understand research processes and the resulting body of urban planning research and scholarship as a whole.
A Perfect Proxy? The United States-Syrian Democratic Forces Partnership
Maguire, Dylan (Virginia Tech Publishing, 2020-05-20)
The US blueprint for operations in Syria included a “by, with, and through” approach to working with local proxies to fight ISIS insurgents. The approach also formed the framework for the United States–Syrian Democratic Forces partnership. However, the US–SDF relationship was never stable and ultimately broke down. In this paper Dylan Maguire examines the inherent challenges in the US–SDF relationship, as well as potential improvements that could be made to the US proxy selection framework to ensure more effective and sustainable proxy relationships in the future.

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