School of Public and International Affairs (SPIA)

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Browsing School of Public and International Affairs (SPIA) by Department "Statistics"

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    Does Rural Water System Design Matter? A Study of Productive Use of Water in Rural Nepal
    GC, Raj K.; Ranganathan, Shyam; Hall, Ralph P. (MDPI, 2019-09-23)
    In Nepal, rural water systems (RWS) are classified by practitioners as single-use domestic water systems (SUS) or multiple-use water systems (MUS). In the rural hills of Nepal, subsistence farming communities typically use RWS to support income-generating productive activities that can enhance rural livelihoods. However, there is limited research on the extent of existing productive activity and the factors enabling these activities. This paper examines the extent of water-related productive activities and the factors driving these activities based on a study, undertaken between October 2017 to June 2018, of 202 households served from five single-use domestic water systems and five multiple use water systems in the mid-hills of Nepal. The research found that a majority (94%) of these households engaged in two or more productive activities including growing vegetables and horticulture crops, raising livestock, and producing biogas and Rakshi (locally-produced alcohol), regardless of the system design, i.e., SUS vs. MUS. Around 90% of the households were engaged in productive activities that contributed to over 10% of their mean annual household income ($4,375). Since the SUS vs. MUS classification was not found to be a significant determinant of the extent of productive activity, the households were reclassified as having high or low levels of productive activity based on the quantity of water used for these activities and the associated earned income. A multinomial logistic regression model was developed to measure the relative significance of various predictors of high productive activity households. Five dominant predictors were identified: households that farm as a primary occupation, use productive technologies, are motivated to pursue productive activities, have received water-related productive activity training, and have received external support related to productive activities. Whereas MUS are designed for productive activity, nearly every household in SUS communities was involved in productive activities making them ‘de-facto’ MUS. These results challenge the current approach to rural water provision that views SUS and MUS as functionally different services.
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    A General Micro-Level Modeling Approach to Analyzing Interconnected SDGs: Achieving SDG 6 and More through Multiple-Use Water Services (MUS)
    Hall, Ralph P.; Ranganathan, Shyam; GC, Raj K. (MDPI, 2017-02-21)
    The 2030 agenda presents an integrated set of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and targets that will shape development activities for the coming decade. The challenge now facing development organizations and governments is how to operationalize this interconnected set of goals and targets through effective projects and programs. This paper presents a micro-level modeling approach that can quantitatively assess the impacts associated with rural water interventions that are tailored to specific communities. The analysis focuses on how a multiple-use water services (MUS) approach to SDG 6 could reinforce a wide range of other SDGs and targets. The multilevel modeling framework provides a generalizable template that can be used in multiple sectors. In this paper, we apply the methodology to a dataset on rural water services from Mozambique to show that community-specific equivalents of macro-level variables used in the literature such as Cost of Illness (COI) avoided can provide a better indication of the impacts of a specific intervention. The proposed modeling framework presents a new frontier for designing projects in any sector that address the specific needs of communities, while also leveraging the knowledge gained from previous projects in any country. The approach also presents a way for agencies and organizations to design projects or programs that bridge sectors/disciplines (water, irrigation, health, energy, economic development, etc.) to advance an interconnected set of SDGs and targets.
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    Pit Latrine Fecal Sludge Resistance Using a Dynamic Cone Penetrometer in Low Income Areas in Mzuzu City, Malawi
    Chirwa, Charles F. C.; Hall, Ralph P.; Krometis, Leigh-Anne H.; Vance, Eric A.; Edwards, Adam; Guan, Ting; Holm, Rochelle H. (MDPI, 2017-02-03)
    Pit latrines can provide improved household sanitation, but without effective and inexpensive emptying options, they are often abandoned once full and may pose a public health threat. Emptying techniques can be difficult, as the sludge contents of each pit latrine are different. The design of effective emptying techniques (e.g., pumps) is limited by a lack of data characterizing typical in situ latrine sludge resistance. This investigation aimed to better understand the community education and technical engineering needs necessary to improve pit latrine management. In low income areas within Mzuzu city, Malawi, 300 pit latrines from three distinct areas were assessed using a dynamic cone penetrometer to quantify fecal sludge strength, and household members were surveyed to determine their knowledge of desludging procedures and practices likely to impact fecal sludge characteristics. The results demonstrate that there is a significant difference in sludge strength between lined and unlined pits within a defined area, though sludge hardened with depth, regardless of the pit type or region. There was only limited association between cone penetration depth and household survey data. To promote the adoption of pit emptying, it is recommended that households be provided with information that supports pit emptying, such as latrine construction designs, local pit emptying options, and cost. This study indicates that the use of a penetrometer test in the field prior to pit latrine emptying may facilitate the selection of appropriate pit emptying technology.
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    Virginia Tech Food Access and Security Study
    Hall, Ralph P.; Ranganathan, Shyam; Agnew, Jessica L.; Christie, Maria Elisa; Kirk, Gary R.; Lucero, Christian; Clark, Susan F.; Archibald, Thomas G. (Virginia Tech, 2019-10-30)
    There is growing evidence to suggest that a substantial number of college and university students in the United States grapple with food insecurity during their studies. One of the most comprehensive surveys on this issue was conducted by The Hope Center with 33 participating four-year institutions. They estimated that 41% of students had low or very low food security (Goldrick-Rab et al. 2019). A review of food security studies by the U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO) (2018) found similar results and that few students who qualified for food assistance were aware of federal food assistance programs such as the Supplemental Nutritional Assistance Program (SNAP). In response to the increasing concern over students’ access to food, this study aims to document food security at Virginia Tech. The study was designed with two parallel goals: to contribute to the national conversation on food access and security amongst higher education students; and to inform a strategic response through data-informed programs and policies at Virginia Tech. The first phase of the study was conducted between Fall 2017 and Spring 2018 and consisted of semi-structured key informant interviews. The second phase was conducted between December 2018 and January 2019 and consisted of an anonymous survey distributed to 32,242 students (27,421 undergraduate and 4,821 graduate) located in Blacksburg. A total of 2,441 (8.9%) undergraduate and 589 (12.2%) graduate students completed the entire survey (for a combined response rate of 9.4%). This study finds that 29% (±3.8%) of undergraduate and 35% (±7%) of graduate students were classified as having low or very low food security based on the USDA food security instrument. These findings are comparable with The Hope Center study (Goldrick-Rab et al. 2019). Students with low/very low food security status were more likely to be Hispanic/Latino or Black/African American, be receiving a Pell grant or financing their education through sources that need to be repaid, have a low GPA, and/or have a disability. Graduate students were also more likely than undergraduate students to be unable to afford to eat balanced meals or have to cut the size of their meals due to a lack of available funds. In general, the proportion of graduate students experiencing food-access problems was greater than the proportion of undergraduate students. A diet diversity score (DDS) was also developed from the student survey to measure the foods consumed by an individual within the previous 24 hours. The DDS is a proxy for dietary quality and helps provide insight into the barriers that students might face in accessing nutritious foods. The study found that on average students classified as having low/very low food security also had a lower DDS. This finding confirms that low food security is associated with a lower diet quality in addition to not having access to enough food. Students who reported that they sometimes or often did not have enough to eat in the past 12 months were also asked if they have received benefits from a range of food assistance programs. Of the 219 students who were asked this question, only 9% (n=20) reported receiving some form of assistance. When asked why they had not used a food assistance program, the primary response was that they felt other people needed more assistance than they did. The next three most selected reasons were a lack of awareness about (1) whether they were eligible for a food assistance program, (2) what programs exist, and (3) whom to speak with about what resources are available. These findings are consistent with the GAO (2018) report. These results reveal that students who potentially need food assistance may not know where to look for help, and administrative and/or social barriers related to existing on- and off-campus services may prevent students from seeking help even if they know it is available. This report also documents a range of on- and off-campus food assistance services that are available for students and provides a summary of the feedback obtained from the key informant interviews on potential next steps that could be taken by Virginia Tech. These steps include enhancing the coordination among, and awareness of, existing food assistance programs on and off campus, and new ideas such as creating an on-campus food pantry or subsidizing the cost of dining for students in need. Regardless of which actions are taken, we believe this report reveals our collective responsibility to ensure that no student at Virginia Tech goes hungry or is unable to access nutritious foods, and to create a community that nurtures learning and growth for all of its members.
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    What factors determine the technical performance of community-managed rural water systems in the middle hills of Nepal?
    Raj, K. G. C.; Ranganathan, Shyam; Hammett, A. L. (Tom); Hall, Ralph P. (2021-03)
    Gravity-fed water systems are widely used in the rural hills of Nepal. This study identifies the systematic factors that contribute to rural households not obtaining water due to system breakdowns. The study makes use of data from a 2017 to 2018 study of 202 households served by 10 community-based water systems from three localities within the western middle hills of Nepal. A hierarchical regression model is used to capture both household- and system-level variables. The analysis identifies three household-level and three system-level predictors of the duration of water system breakdowns. The significant household-level predictors include (1) a sense of ownership toward the water system, (2) user involvement in decision making during the planning and implementation of the water system, and (3) income earned from water-based productive activities. The significant system-level predictors include (1) distance from the village to the water source, (2) the performance of the water user committee, and (3) the water system operator's level of activity. In addition, the interactions between household- and system-level variables are captured. The empirical relationship between household productive income and the duration of breakdowns is a novel finding. These findings will be valuable to the Nepalese government and other actors working to implement sustainable water systems.