Feiertag Hospitality Academy-to-Industry Research

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The Feiertag Hospitality Academy-to-Industry Research Collection brings together research from the academic world with articles written for industry so all can benefit from those insights. The collection includes peer-reviewed academic research in the area of Hospitality Sales and it translates research recommendations and best practices models into a language useful to the hospitality practitioner. This collection aims to bridge the gap between the academy and the hospitality industry.

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A case study investigation of strategy implementation in three multi-unit restaurant firms
Schmelzer, Claire D. (Virginia Tech, 1992)
The primary objective of this study was to conduct an exploratory investigation of the process of strategy implementation in multi-unit restaurant firms. A model comprised of five context variables and five process variables was developed on the basis of a review of the theoretical literature about the restaurant industry, strategy implementation, and organization theory. Qualitative research methods, specifically case study design, concept mapping, and matrix analysis were used to collect and analyze the data from three firms. The findings from this investigation included 14 propositions that explain the associations between the variables and other factors found to affect implementation in the three companies, which were investigated. A new framework was developed from the propositions that further delineates the strategy implementation process. The framework introduces four additional variables found to be involved in the implementation process: life cycle stage of the firm, size and geographic dispersion of the firm, manager demographics, and training. Three primary context variables, organizational culture, organizational structure, and perceived environmental uncertainty; and three primary process variables, information processing, planning and control, and resource allocation were found to have a major effect on strategy implementation. The results obtained provide a basis for further study of the implementation process.
Consumer involvement in ethnic restaurants: a measure of satisfaction/dissatisfaction
Ladki, Said M. (Virginia Tech, 1993-12-15)
The purpose of this study was to evaluate whether consumer orientation (active/passive) and psychological involvement (attitude, opinion, belief, and behavioral intention) affect satisfaction when dining in an ethnic restaurant. The sample represented 232 consumers who dined in participating Washington D.C. metropolitan area ethnic restaurants. Information was obtained by asking consumers to answer a four part, 86 item questionnaire. Correlation analysis revealed that opinion (r = 0.17, P < 0.04), belief (r = 0.28, P < 0.01), and behavioral intentions (r = 0.19, P < 0.02) of the active consumer significantly affect satisfaction. Whereas, for the passive consumer no significant effect was found. Results of the stepwise regression analysis revealed that consumer psychological involvement and restaurant attributes affect satisfaction with service (R² = 0.57, p<0.05), satisfaction with lunch (R² = 0.8, p<0.05), satisfaction with dinner (R² = 0.33, p<0.05), and satisfaction with the overall dining experience (R² = 0.39, p<0.0l). Further, it was found that consumers' future visitations, within the next few weeks, were affected by consumer's psychological involvement (R² = 0.53, p<0.0l). Restaurant attributes (speed of service; employee courtesy; and food quality and prices) affected overall satisfaction in dining (R² = 0.4, p<0.0l), but it weakly affected future visitations (R² = 0.04, p<0.04, negative Mallows' Coefficient). The findings of this study contribute not only to consumer self-concept theory and satisfaction theory but also have practical implications to the ethnic restaurant industry.
Consumer satisfaction and dissatisfaction in tourism as related to destination image perception
Chon, Kye-Sung (Virginia Tech, 1990-12-06)
The primary objective of this study was to investigate the relationship between travel destination image and the tourist satisfaction/dissatisfaction. Using the evaluative congruity theory framework, this study focused on the role of destination images in tourism with regard to consumer satisfaction/ dissatisfaction (CS/D) from the stand point of: (1) the functional congruency between the tourist's expectations and his/her perceptions of specific utilitarian (functional) attributes of a destination; (2) the value-expressive (symbolic) congruency between the tourist'S self concept and the destination's personality image; and (3) the degree of emotional involvement the traveler associates with travel purchases and its influence on his/her satisfaction/ dissatisfaction. The key findings of this study indicate that CS/D is related to both functional and symbolic congruity. With regard to the relative strength of the functional congruity and the symbolic congruity in explaining CS/D in tourism, the functional congruity was found to explain CS/D better than the symbolic congruity. It was also found that the tourist's emotional involvement in the travel purchase process affects his/her satisfaction/dissatisfaction with the destination.
Cost of capital: a practical model incorporated with risk assessment for hotel investments in the middle-price and economy segments
Zeng, Yee (Virginia Tech, 1993)
Hotel investments, which have far-reaching impact on hotel companies' long term financial health, will continue to be the primary mode for hotel companies' survival and growth. However, top management has been facing a changing industry and investment community to which they are required to adapt. Consequently, the old fashioned gut-feeling types of decision making are no longer appropriate for sound hotel investments. It is the primary objective of this study to develop a model for hotel investment risk assessment and appropriate cost of capital estimation in the middle-price and economy hotel segments for the investment's capital budgeting purposes. The hotel investment risk assessment and cost of capital estimation model research was conducted using the focus group interview, the Delphi Technique, and the case study. As exploratory research, the focus group interview was conducted with the participation of hotel executives and general managers, hotel owners, and bank lenders from the Virginia area. Key investment risk factors were identified from the opinions of this panel, which represented different perspectives and needs. The summary findings laid out the foundation of the Delphi Technique survey_ The Delphi survey was conducted among hotel general managers, hotel executives, and hotel owners within three hotel chains in Virginia, Maryland and Delaware. They consisted of a professional panel of 19 members. The first task accomplished by the panel was to further validate the key risk factor profile developed by the focus group interview. The second task was to rate the level of influence of the identified factors using a five point likert-type scale (5=very influential, 1 = little influential). Three rounds of the survey allowed the panel members to achieve a consensus on the issues. A total of 36 hotel key investment risk factors in the middle-priced and economy segments were agreed to be included in the investment risk assessment framework. In addition, a ranking of all factors was produced based on each factor's importance and influence level. All the factors received a higher than average (rank scale 3) ranking. The empirical finding provided a valuable framework for the subjective risk assessment in the cost of capital estimation model.
Critical success factors of lodging yield management systems: an empirical study
Griffin, Robert K. (Virginia Tech, 1994-08-01)
The primary objective of this research effort was to examine the relationships between successful lodging yield management systems and controllable independent variables in the form of critical success factors (CSFs). The identification of variables consequential to system success is considered to be an important step towards improving system design, implementation, and operation. Twenty-three system success constructs, 27 potential CSFs, and three confounding variables were identified through an extensive literature review, discussions with system vendors, developers, and users, and through data analysis. Eleven different lodging yield management systems (LYMSs) were identified, and three of them were sampled. The dependent variables were converted into a single weighted regression factor score using a principal components model. The respondent's position, size of property, and type of property were found to be confounding variables. The dependent and independent variables were correlated to identifY the CSFs. Every independent variable was identified as a CSF for at least one of the three systems, and the strength of the correlations were generally high. System, user, and task factors were found to be highly correlated to system success. Support and environmental factors were found to be moderately to weakly correlated to system success.
Cross-cultural investigation of the relationship between personal values and hotel selection criteria
Lee, Myoungwha Choi (Virginia Tech, 1993-05-05)
The present study investigated the potential of personal values to segment business traveler markets in the hospitality industry. The study was conducted both in the U.S. and Korea. Mail surveys were sent to a random sample of one-thousand business travelers in each country. Two hypotheses were tested to examine the relationship between personal values and hotel choice criteria, and two other hypotheses were tested regarding cultural differences of personal value structures and hotel choice criteria. In the U.S. sample, two major value groups were identified with distinct hotel choice criteria whereas three value groups were found in the Korean sample. In the both samples, respondents' value structures appeared to be related to the importance of hotel choice criteria. Consumer groups with homogeneous value structures seemed to have similar needs and wants regarding hotel services. The influence of personal values on hotel choice criteria was identified across cultures. However, the specific value-to-choice criteria relationship appeared to be culture dependent, preventing generalization of value-choice criteria relationships across cultures. Results revealed considerable cross-cultural differences relative to consumers' value structures and hotel choice criteria. Findings of the present study suggested that personal values hold potential for market segmentation in the hotel industry both in the domestic and international market. Several implications regarding existing consumer behavior theory and application to marketing management practices in the hospitality industry were investigated.
Development of a framework for identification of political environmental issues faced by multinational hotel chains in newly industrialized countries in Asia
Kim, Chol Yong (Virginia Tech, 1992-04-05)
The primary/objective of this study was to develop a framework for identification of political environmental issues faced by multinational hotel chains in newly industrialized countries in Asia. To accomplish the objective, key factors having an impact upon these hotel chains were identified using the Delphi Technique. This study was conducted with participation of multinational hotel chain executives and general managers, trade association executives, government tourism officials, hospitality management educators, and industry lawyers. Five Asian countries including Hong Kong, Korea, Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand were selected as a sample for newly industrialized countries. Key factors in the political environment were identified under four categories: law and regulation, administrative, judicial, and lobbying, based on the classification scheme of the Trends Database developed by the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and state University. A professional panel of 17 members identified 93 key factors for each category in the first round of Delphi. In the second round panel members rated the level of influence of these identified factors using a five point Likert-type scale (5 = very influential, 1 = not influential), and reexamined their ratings in the final round to reach an agreement. All key factors receiving a total of two-thirds of the panel members' votes in the very influential, moderately influential and average influence categories were included in the framework. Finally, a total of 58 factors were agreed to be included in the framework: 26 in the law and regulation category, 14 in administrative, 10 in judicial, and 8 in lobbying categories.
An empirical analysis of the strategic implications of type of entrepreneur in the restaurant industry
Elwood, Clare M. (Virginia Tech, 1991-01-15)
The primary purpose of this study was to empirically test Smith's (1967) typology of entrepreneurial type and Miles and Snow's (1978) typology of strategy in the restaurant industry, and then to establish whether or not there is a relationship between type of entrepreneur and type of strategy. A total of 1,000 entrepreneurs were surveyed using a structured questionnaire. One hundred and thirty three entrepreneurs participated in the study, yielding a response rate of 14.76%. From the basis of the objectives and research questions, four hypotheses were derived to identify the presence of Smith's (1967) typology of entrepreneurs (craftsman and opportunistic entrepreneurs), Miles and Snow's (1978) typology of strategy (defenders, prospectors, analyzers and reactors), and the relationship between type of entrepreneur and type of strategy in the restaurant industry. The findings of the hypotheses tests indicated that Smith's two entrepreneurial types may not be mutually exclusive and that there is probably a third group of entrepreneurs, combining characteristics from both Smith's craftsman and opportunistic types. Support was found for Miles and Snow's four generic strategies of defender, prospector, analyzer and reactor. Through the use of discriminant analysis, it was possible to demonstrate a relationship between type of entrepreneur and type of strategy. Furthermore, two moderating variables were found to also be associated with the realationship between type of entrepreneur.
An empirical study of the value of professional association meetings from the perspective of attendees
Price, Catherine H. (Virginia Tech, 1993-04-19)
Individuals have personal and occupational needs that are satisfied to some degree by attending professional meetings. The primary purpose of this study was to identify the attributes of professional society meetings that have value for attendees. Three meeting attributes were identified from a review of the literature: education, networking and leadership. The second purpose was to explain why individuals preferred certain meeting attributes. Career theories were used to provide an explanatory schema for interpreting individual differences. The findings of this study support four meeting attributes; the three hypothesized-education, networking and leadership, plus a fourth, named professional savvy. Based on the means education was the most frequently recognized attribute, networking the second, professional savvy was third, and leadership the least recognized. Career stages were shown to predict the attribute that would be valued most highly by an individual attendee. The three career stages and respective survey items shown to it be significant were {1) biological or life-span theories represented by the survey item age; (2) social class theories represented by salary, and (3) transition-based theories represented by the number of years a person has been in their profession, the number of years with the current employer and the individuals perception of changes in their job responsibilities. The data show that education is the most important attribute to three fourths of the sample and for these individuals career stages are normally distributed. For those who prefer leadership, savvy and networking more descriptive profiles can be drawn from the career stage variables. The results of this study are particularly useful to individuals who plan meetings. The data show that meeting organizers and planners can identify critical items that link the individuals to a particular career stage, and because meeting attributes are linked to career stages, programs can be designed to provide the selected or range of attributes depending on the particular make-up of the audience.
Employee perceptions of performance appraisal acceptability in a merit pay setting
Gibson, Timothy Paul (Virginia Tech, 1991-07-05)
The purpose of this study was to audit employee perceptions of the Sentara Health System performance appraisal system in a merit pay setting. To accomplish this, the study investigated variables having a positive relationship on employee perception of performance appraisal acceptability, fairness and accuracy. The study had three objectives: (1) integrate the current body of literature to develop variables that adequately describe employee perception of appraisal systems, (2) integrate these variables into several hypotheses that are consistent with current literature, and (3) test the hypotheses using Pearson product moment correlations. Nine variables hypothesized as depicting aspects of employee perceptions were conceptualized, and multiple indicators were developed for each variable. A questionnaire containing these items was randomly distributed to 300 employees throughout a large health care system. Results indicate that performance appraisal acceptability, fairness and accuracy had a positive relationship with supervisor trust, supervisor knowledge of performance, interview information, interview atmosphere, performance standard acceptability, participation in development, performance reward link and merit pay acceptability. All the hypotheses had significant positive correlations (≤ï»¿ï»¿ï»¿ï»¿.01). These findings were discussed in terms of the study limitations, suggested future research and implications for the organization studied, as well as other organizations with merit pay programs.
Environmental uncertainty, business strategy and financial performance: a study of the lodging industry
Dev, Chekitan S. (Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1988)
The primary objective of this study was to investigate the relationship between perceived environmental uncertainty, business strategy, and financial performance in the lodging Industry. Using a contingency framework, this study investigated the match between strategy content and environmental uncertainty which, from previous research, appear to distinguish between high and low performing organizations (Miles 8 Snow, 1978; Bourgeois, 1978; Schaffer, 1986). The key question that forms the basis of this research is whether the empirical evidence supports previous theory relating to the environment, strategy, and performance relationship. The findings of this study indicate that a "match" between the state of the environment facing an organization and its business strategy is required for high performance. Hotels employing a defender strategy In a stable environment tend to perform better than hotels that employing other strategies. Similarly, hotels employing an analyzer strategy in a volatile environment tend to perform better than hotels that employing other strategies. Furthermore, irrespective of the environment faced, smaller hotels do better than larger hotels in terms of profit, while larger properties tend to fare better in terms of revenue. From an Industry application perspective, this study provides the strategy planner in the lodging industry with empirical information relating to: 1. A means to assess the state of the business environment perceived by individual unit general managers, 2. A repertoire of business strategies that emphasize different competitive postures, and 3. A "decision rule" to apply in appropriately matching their strategy to an environmental state for maximal performance outcome reflected in revenues and earnings. The results obtained provide an invaluable planning and analysis tool for all levels of management involved in charting a firm’s future.
An examination of individual level effects of downsizing in a foodservice organization
Hutchinson, Joe Carruth (Virginia Tech, 1994-05-05)
This research examined the effect of downsizing on the stress-related perceptions and work-related attitudes and behaviors of employees of a school food service organization. A major purpose of this study was to investigate individual level responses according to the severity of the downsizing. The research also examined the relationships between employees' stress-related perceptions and their work-related attitudes and behaviors, and the moderating effect of demographic factors on these relationships. Data for this research was collected from 527 cafeteria employees from 87 campuses of the focal organization. The results indicated that downsizing severity, expressed as the percentage of school cafeteria labor hour reductions during the past year, had little impact on employees' subjective interpretations or their attitudinal and behavioral responses. There was also a significant and positive relationship between downsizing severity and the campus-level productivity, as measured by the increase in meals served per labor hour. The results indicated no significant relationships between perceived job insecurity and employee attitudinal and behavioral reactions. However, significant and positive relationships were reported between employee role stress, as measured through role conflict and role ambiguity, and their work-related attitudes and behaviors. The correlations between perceived job insecurity and selected demographic variables were found to be either insignificant or contrary to predictions.
An exploratory analysis of the restaurant dining patterns of older adults
Logsdon, Kathleen Petty (Virginia Tech, 1991-12-05)
The main objective of this study was to describe the restaurant dining patterns of a representative random sample of adults 65 years of age and older and to evaluate the impact that their health concerns and special diets have on their restaurant dining patterns. In addition, the specific features of food service products and services that are important to aged individuals when selecting a restaurant were examined. The phrase 'dining patterns' refers to both food intake (the specific foods consumed) and individual consumption patterns (time, frequency, location of meals, and dining companions). Four different measures were used to quantify food intake: (1) entree items most often selected; (2) preferred method of preparation; (3) frequency of dessert purchases; and (4) type of dessert most often selected. Consumption patterns were quantified as: (1) type of restaurant patronized for each meal period; (2) frequency of restaurant visits per meal period; (3) dollar value of purchases per meal period; and (4) restaurant dining companions. A mail survey of 1000 adults age 65 and older, was conducted in order to obtain information about the restaurant menu selections and consumption patterns of aged individuals living in the Commonwealth of Virginia.
An exploratory study of family dining attitudes toward full service restaurant product/service attributes
Logan, Theresa Castillo (Virginia Tech, 1991-05-15)
Families dining out with children are becoming an important customer segment revealing a personal preference for convenience, timely service, menu variety, and child entertainment. According to united states industry figures, families dining out with children constitute twenty percent of estimated commercial restaurant sales. Although the restaurant industry is segmenting customer markets for the 1990's, most restaurateurs still define customer markets using instinct versus market segmentation research. By targeting families with children, the researcher investigated family dining attitudes according to gender, income, ages of children in the family unit, and frequency of dining out. The research was an exploratory investigation, identifying family dining attitudes toward full service restaurant products and services. Survey data was collected and analyzed, using a convenience sample of families in Fairfax County, Virginia.
An exploratory study of franchisee turnover and its relationship with franchisee satisfaction
Chiu, Esther Y. (Virginia Tech, 1992-05-15)
The purpose of this study is to investigate franchisee turnover practice and empirically test the relationship between franchisee satisfaction and turnover behavior. A total of 402 franchisees of a quick service franchise system were surveyed by using two sets of structured questionnaires. Sixty-seven current and 24 terminated franchisee participated in the study, yielding a response rate of 29.8%. Based on the objective and research questions, two hypotheses were established and tested. The testing of the hypotheses indicated a significant difference between the satisfaction of terminated and current franchisees on service support, social interaction, and general satisfaction. Also, there is a relationship between franchisee’s satisfaction and his or her future intention. Through factor analysis two critical factors were identified closely related to the satisfaction and future intention of current and terminated franchisees.
An exploratory study of human resource management and business strategy in multiunit restaurant firms
Ishak, Nor K. (Virginia Tech, 1990-03-24)
The objectives of this study is two-fold: First, is to explore the nature of human resource management (HRM) functional activities in the multiunit restaurant firms, focusing at the unit restaurant managers level. The second objective is to investigate the relationship between the firm's business strategy and its HRM practices. This study addresses the critical need for empirical research that examines HRM practices in restaurant firms, and presents a possible solution to the acute management shortage problem in the industry. Data are collected from 14 publicly-traded multiunit restaurant firms. A case study approach is taken to provide an in-depth examination of each firm. Primary data are derived via interviews and structured mailed questionnaires. Information is also collected through published sources. The results indicate that restaurant firms do have similar HRM functional activities' emphasis. Some of those activities were found to support the firm's business strategy. An analysis of the qualitative data indicate that although the HRM executives are involved in the firms' strategic planning process, the current acute labor shortage and high turnover problems demand them to focus on administrative issues instead. The study provides exploratory evidence for the effectiveness of a positive link between HRM practices and business strategy. It has contributed to a deeper understanding of the issues and functions of the HRM divisions in the multiunit restaurant firms.
An exploratory study on factors affecting the recruitment, retention and promotion of blacks in upper-level lodging management
Charles, Reuben O. (Virginia Tech, 1994-06-08)
Relative to whites, blacks occupy a very small percentage of upper-level management positions in the lodging industry. This is evident when the numbers of black upper-level managers are compared to their representation in the hospitality labor pool and the United States population. This study uses the perceptions of black general managers and corporate executives as a means of identifying factors affecting the recruitment, retention, and promotion of blacks into these positions. While most of the literature attributed the underrepresentation to race discrimination, this study explores other factors that may also be responsible. One area of exploration was the use of internal marketing principles as a means of addressing and possibly resolving the problem of under-representation. The study consisted of telephone interviews with seven black general managers and executives from four major hotel chains. The purpose of the study was to determine if and to what extent did race discrimination affect the advancement of blacks into upper-level lodging management. It was also designed to explore the extent to which other factors affected such advancement by blacks, and further, identify ways in which hotel companies could enhance advancement opportunities for their qualified black employees. The respondents of the study provided enough information to develop conclusions about the impact such factors like education, mentorship, societal perceptions, and internal marketing have on the advancement of blacks in the lodging industry. There was unanimous agreement that race discrimination did adversely affect the advancement of blacks into upper-level lodging management. However, there it was also noted that there is a tremendous amount of opportunity in the industry that is either being overlooked or simply not being pursued by blacks. These respondents also provided several recommendations for young blacks considering careers in lodging management.
Identification of environmental factors that influence the choice of franchising methods of U.S. restaurant companies in Pan Pacific region
Bosereewong, Vipaporn (Virginia Tech, 1994-02-02)
Franchising has become a proven and acceptable method of distributing products and services for both domestic and foreign markets. The pressures on franchisors to search for foreign markets have led to heightened interest in international franchising. According to Franchising in the Economy (1990), restaurants of all types rank number one, followed by business aids and services. Therefore, the restaurant industry leads the domain of business in international franchising. The primary objective of this study was to develop a model based on experts' opinion for the selection of different franchising methods to be used as a guideline for restaurant companies that plan to franchise internationally. Environmental factors that affect international franchising in the Pan Pacific region are identified. The major methods used in franchising are: 1. direct franchising, 2. master franchise agreements, and 3. joint venture agreements. The recommendation of the most popular franchising methods for Singapore, Korea, Thailand, and Malaysia are studied.
The intention to purchase a night's stay in a hotel: an empirical test of the Hines' model of responsible environmental behavior
Gustin, Mary Elizabeth (Virginia Tech, 1994-05-05)
This study was approached with a desire to move forward the body of knowledge concerning environmental research as it pertains to the hospitality industry. The endeavor was undertaken with the belief that concern and awareness about the environment is not a passing fad but a fundamental shift in society. In order for any business to survive it must keep up with changes and meet the demands of consumers. The research efforts in this study were aimed at establishing the validity and reliability of a consumer behavior model specifically related to environmental behavior. The purpose of this dissertation was to evaluate a consumer's intention to stay in a hotel based on the environmental strategies used by that hotel. Hines (1984) developed a conceptual environmental consumer behavior model based on a meta-analysis of literature on environmentally responsible behavior. Hines' conceptual Model of Responsible Environmental Behavior utilized knowledge, abilities, attitudes, personal responsibility and locus of control to predict environmental behavior. The goal of this study was to empirically test an adapted version of Hines' Model of Responsible Environmental Behavior. This adapted version utilized knowledge, attitudes and perceived self-efficacy to predict consumers' intentions to purchase a night's stay in a hotel. Canonical correlation analysis was used to test the relationship between intention and each of the variables (knowledge, attitudes and perceived self-efficacy) in Hines' model. The multivariate test of significance revealed that each variable had a positive relationship to intention to purchase. The Hines' Model of Responsible Environmental Behavior was more useful in predicting consumers' intention to purchase a night's stay in a particular hotel than each variable individually. The model tested in this study has laid the foundation for developing a sound environmentally responsible consumer behavior model. The research findings suggest that a hotel implementing environmental strategies can increase business for that hotel.
Strategy, environmental scanning, and their effect upon performance: an exploratory study of the food service industry
West, Joseph John (Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1988)
The major purpose of this study was to examine the relationship of strategy and environmental scanning to performance. Porter’s (1980) strategic typology was utilized to classify foodservice firms by strategic orientation; and, an analysis of variance was performed to determine the differences in their performance. Environmental scanning engaged in by the firms was measured utilizing a modified multimethod - multitrait scale developed by Hambrick (1979). A final analysis conducted in this study was the comparison of environmental sectors scanned by high and low performing firms of each strategic group to determine their relationship with the performance variables. The three performance variables used in this study were: (a) Return on Sales, (b) Return on Assets, and (c) Growth in Unit Sales. All foodservice firms surveyed were either independent corporations or strategic business units of larger corporations whose major source of revenue was the foodservice industry. The study was nationwide with 18 national, 32 regional, and 15 local foodservice companies participating. The data was collected from fiscal year 1982 through fiscal year 1986 from both private and public sources. Strategy and environmental scanning were found to have substantial influence on both Return on Sales and Return on Assets. High performing firms in both differentiation and low cost strategies were found to engage in significantly greater amounts of environmental scanning than low performing firms in those two strategic groups. Focus strategy underperformed all other strategic groups in all performance measures.

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