VTechWorks Repository :: Browsing by Author "Brown, James R."

Browsing by Author "Brown, James R."

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Bad Apples, Bad Barrels, and the Structure of Marketing Channel Relationships: Analyses of the Propensity for Opportunism and Opportunistic Behaviors
Ishida, Chiharu (Virginia Tech, 2007-04-27)
The theoretical frameworks of transaction cost economics and agency theory are widely used to design appropriate governance structure for constraining opportunism within marketing channels. These approaches generally assume that marketing channel managers are opportunistic, and only economic constraints deter opportunism in exchange relationships. However, some empirical studies have shown that managers do not always behave opportunistically even if conditions permit such behavior. In addition, some researchers have proposed a "cycle of self-fulfilling prophecy" and have argued that the uncritical assumption of opportunism and excessive use of control mechanisms such as monitoring only exacerbates the problem. Thus, it is important to identify conditions in which opportunism likely occurs. The present research argues that marketing channel managers exhibit differing propensities for opportunism (PFO), and it spans three levels of analysis to identify contributing factors. The individual-level analysis treats marketing channel managers as a heterogeneous population and investigates the impact of individual traits on their behaviors in business relationships. At the dyadic level, I modify standard microeconomics models to incorporate norms of fairness. Finally, the extra-dyadic level of analysis goes beyond the traditional dyadic focus to include network-wide social influence on a relationship. Using the data collected from 162 unit franchieees. the hypotheses were tested using structural path analyses. The findings of this dissertation provide guidance on the extent to which costly and potentially damaging control mechanisms are really necessary in a given marketing channel relationship. Overall, the research contributes to the existing literature by re-examining a fundamental behavioral assumption about marketing channel managers and providing an alternative framework that can meaningfully inform us as to when and why opportunism occurs.
A contingency approach to the effectiveness of agenda sales strategies
Wagner, Judy A. (Virginia Tech, 1995)
This dissertation investigated the effect of agenda presentations on selling effectiveness. In this context, agendas were salesperson-suggested constraints on the order of selecting or eliminating choice alternatives. A conceptual model compatible with Weitz's Contingency Model of Salesperson Effectiveness was developed and tested. It was hypothesized that the effectiveness of agenda sales presentations is moderated by buyer expertise, the buyer/seller relationship, and the relative competitive strength of the target product. The study used an interactive computer questionnaire which was programmed in the format of sales calls for a simulated copier purchase. Two hundred and forty-eight (248) industrial buyers with actual copier-purchasing responsibility comprised the sample. The simulation included sales calls for both target product and a market leader. The design for this field experiment varied the type of sales presentation (agenda and compensatory), the type of buyer/seller relationship (relational and discrete), and the relative competitive strength (stronger and weaker product) between subjects. Expertise was measured. Counterbalancing the order of the sales presentations allowed for examination of possible order effects. Selling effectiveness was measured by the inclusion of the target product in the buyer’s consideration set, selection of the target product as the buyer's final choice, buyer perceptions of the target product, buyer perceptions of the choice and choice process, and by the buyer's perceptions of the seller. Results support the notion of contingent decision making and Weitz's Contingent Model of Salesperson Effectiveness as evidenced by significant 4- way interactions for 6 of the 8 measures of selling effectiveness. In general, agenda presentations were shown to be more effective for use in getting the target product into the consideration set, improving buyers' perceptions of the seller's expertise, during discrete exchange, and for the weaker of the products. Counter to predictions, agendas were generally more effective when used with experts than novices. Future researchers may find it productive to further explore the effectiveness of agenda sales strategies. Finally, the promising results of this study demonstrate the potential use of this type of simulation for experimental research in sales.
The effect of group influence on organizational buying
Stoddard, James E. (Virginia Tech, 1994)
This research explores the process by which individual buying decisions are modified as a result of group discussion to arrive at a buying center decision. Existing evidence shows that, in some cases, group decisions are more cautious than those of individuals while in other situations they are more risky. The objective of this paper is to examine how individual buying center member choices are formed, how these choices and preferences are influenced by group discussion, and how the purchase decision context influences the riskiness of individual versus group purchasing discussions. One of the key concepts from prospect theory that guides an individual buying decision is the decision frame. However, little is known about how the decision frame of multiple individuals coming together to discuss a decision issue affects the group's overall decision. This research develops a model which describes (1) how an organizational buyer's individual choice is formed, (2) how the influence processes that transpire during buying center discussion changes those choices resulting in a different buying center choice, and (3) explores how the purchasing context may impact these processes. The model was tested in two controlled laboratory experiments in which 256 undergraduate business students made supplier selection decisions both individually and in groups based on information contained in four hypothetical procurement scenarios. The results were analyzed using a partially confounded experimental analysis of variance procedure and a series of t tests which tend to provide Support for the model. Specifically, the findings suggest that the decision frame used by individual buyers combined with group influence affects buying center choices. However, contrary to the predictions offered by prospect theory, when decision were framed as a gain, buyers selected the risky supplier and when decisions were framed as a loss, buyers selected the cautious supplier. For this study, no evidence was found to support the notion that group discussion intensifies the effect of the decision frame. Finally, whether the procurement is goods- or service-based seems to impact the effect of influence on the polarization of the buying centers choice.
The effect of outsourcing and situational characteristics on physical distribution transportation efficiency
Bienstock, Carol C. (Virginia Tech, 1994-10-06)
This research examined the outsourcing decision for the logistics function of motor carrier transportation. A full factorial design was executed on a simulated transportation network to investigate how the efficiency of motor carrier transportation was affected by how it was structured (private/leased fleet versus contract carrier transportation) and the characteristics of the transportation activities. Transaction Cost Analysis (TCA) offered a useful theoretical framework for consideration of this make or buy decision by suggesting the independent variables of asset specificity, uncertainty, and frequency/volume. Seven two-part research hypotheses examined the relationships among the independent variables to gain a greater understanding of the factors which drive the make versus buy decision for motor carrier transportation. The major conclusions of this research are: 1) For the system modelled here, structure (private/leased versus contract carriers) and volume had the largest effects on transportation efficiency (mean shipment cost). 2) The results of this study indicated that there may be important factors within the nature of the “supplying” industry that impact the make or buy decision. This research provided strong support for TCA predictions and clearly demonstrated that TCA is a useful framework for understanding firms’ make or buy decisions. Because of the nature of the transportation industry (the high level of competition and the lack of a small numbers bargaining situation), the hypotheses in this research clearly indicated that a "buy" rather than a "make" decision was the most efficient alternative; this result is exactly consistent with TCA predictions. 3) For the system modelled here, higher fixed and per mile equipment leasing expenses (incurred in the operation of refrigerated trailers) caused refrigerated shipments to be more expensive than standard dry trailer shipments. That is, asset specificity (in this case, requirements for refrigerated trailer equipment) had a significant effect on shipment efficiency.
The effects of contextual cues on consumers' perceptions of comparative price advertisments
Hyun, Soeun (Virginia Tech, 1993-08-05)
The purpose of this study is to understand Korean consumers' perceptual processes induced by comparative price advertisements. While controlling for intrinsic product cue effects, this study examines the joint effects of extrinsic cues, such as comparative price (regular price /sale price), brand name, country-of-manufacture, and retailer name, on a consumer's perception of a product's price and quality. In examining the effects of advertising contextual cues, this study incorporates consumer perceptual processes, the processes through which the external cues are perceived and compared to or moderated by other variables. The perceptual structure is based on relevant theories and accumulated knowledge from research in this area. Specially adapted theories for this study are the adaptation-level theory, the message learning theory, and the transaction utility theory.
The Effects of Employee-Initiated Peripheral Service Failures on Customers' Satisfactions with the Service Organization
Hess, Ronald L. Jr. (Virginia Tech, 1999-05-06)
This dissertation investigates how satisfaction with a service employee affects customers' overall satisfaction with a service organization following an employee-initiated service failure. Specifically, this research examines how the severity of a peripheral service failure (how the service is delivered), quality of past core service performance (basic benefits of service), and existence of past peripheral service failures impact the extent to which customers' satisfaction with an employee transfers to evaluations of the service organization. Dimensions of attribution theory are explored as a process mediating the effects of these variables on satisfaction with the employee and organization. This dissertation extends attribution theory by differentiating controllability attributions at both the employee and organizational levels, as well as introducing attributions of globality (universal across the organization versus employee or situation-specific) to marketing. Distinctions between employee and organizational-level attributions may clarify the process by which customer evaluations of employees affect organizations. The study used an experimental role-playing methodology to test the proposed conceptual model. Four-hundred forty-five (445) air travelers comprised the sample. The design for this study varied the severity of the current peripheral service failure (less severe, more severe, and no-failure), existence of past peripheral service failures (existing and not existing), and quality of past core service performance (excellent and average). Structural equation modeling using Lisrel 8.20 was used to test the proposed hypotheses. Overall, the results show that the severity of the peripheral service failure and aspects of past service history influence the attributions that customers make following peripheral service failures. These attributions, in turn, have a significant impact on customers' satisfaction with the employee and the organization. The findings also indicate that the severity of the current peripheral failure can spill over and negatively affect customers' satisfaction with the core service component. Furthermore, the results show that both aspects of customers' past service experience with an organization (existence of past peripheral service failures, quality of past core service performance) directly impact customers' overall satisfaction with the organization.
Effects of Experiences and Brand-Self Image Congruity on Perceived Risk and Purchase Intention in Apparel Online Shopping Context
Cho, Siwon (Virginia Tech, 2008-10-31)
Retailers' ultimate concern is consumers'' purchase intentions because increasing levels of purchase intention may lead to the actual purchase, which is directly related to retailers' sales and profits. Perceived risk has been proposed as one of the most important concepts for understanding how consumers make a purchase decision (Mitchell, 1999) and research findings supported that perceived risk was a significant factor affecting consumers' willingness to purchase (Heijden, Verhagen, & Creemers, 2001). Therefore, it is critical for online retailers in the apparel industry to understand consumer's perceived risk and purchase intention so that they can develop effective retail strategies and build long-term relationships with customers. Consumers use internal information to help them in the purchase decision process by retrieving risk-related information from memory. Experience and product/brand knowledge are two common types of internal information that consumers use to reduce risks and make purchase decisions (Brucks, 1985; Engel, Blackwell, & Miniard, 1995). Studies showed that experience with previous in-home shopping for apparel products significantly reduced perceived risk and increased purchase intention in buying apparel products via in-home shopping channels (Kwon, Paek, & Arzeni, 1991; Park & Stoel, 2005; Sen, Johnson, Stanforth, Lennon, & Moore, 2000). Several researchers also have investigated the relationship between the familiarity with a website's brand and the perceived of risk and purchase intention (Laroche, Kim, & Zhou, 1996; Park & Stoel, 2005). However, the brand familiarity in these studies was measured as consumer's brand knowledge through frequent exposures, such as advertisement, instead of experiences acquired through actual purchase and use of the brands. No study has examined if the purchase experience and actual usage of a specific brand are related to perceived risk when consumers shop for apparel products online. Brand image is one type of knowledge that consumers stored in their memory and may retrieve it during their decision making process. Studies showed that brand image was the most important and most frequently used tool to reduce consumers' perception of risk (Nandan, 2005). McCracken (1989) indicated that brand image helps an individual express oneself and develop one's self-identities; therefore, consumers prefer products with an image that matches their actual or ideal self-concept (Karande, Zinkhan, & Lum, 1997). Therefore, congruity between brand image and consumers' self image (brand-self image congruity) may help consumers to reduce their perceived risk and increase purchase intention in apparel online purchases. No study has examined the effect of brand-self image congruity in apparel online shopping context. The purposes of the study were to investigate (a) the relationships between consumers' experience with apparel catalog/TV shopping and their experience with apparel online shopping, (b) the effects of consumers' experience with apparel online shopping and brand-self image congruity on their experience with a specific brand, and (c) the effects of consumers' experience with a specific brand and brand-self image congruity on their perceived risk and purchase intention in apparel online shopping context. Two conceptual frameworks were developed. The first framework was for examining all participants, including participants with and without experience with a specific brand. The valence of experience with a specific brand was excluded in this framework. The second framework, including the valence of the experience with a specific brand, was for examining participants who had experience with a specific brand. Fifteen research hypotheses were generated with respect to the specific relationships proposed in the conceptual frameworks. A 2 x 2 quasi-experimental between subjects design was used in this study to examine if experience with a specific brand (Experience vs. No Experience) and brand-self image congruity (Consistent vs. Inconsistent) were the antecedents of perceived risk and purchase intention in apparel online shopping context. In addition to the quasi-experimental design, a survey design was also used to examine the relationships among experiences with catalog, TV, and online shopping for apparel products and the relationships among experience with apparel online shopping, perceived risk and purchase intention. Data was collected by online surveys using a national sample, and 455 apparel online shoppers living in the U.S. participated. Factor analysis results showed that the valence and extent of the experiences were two different constructs, and therefore, the two aspects of experience were included in the study. The extent of the experience is about how often consumers buy products, how much money they spend, and how many items they buy (Klopping & McKinney, 2006; Seock, 2003; Ward, 2001). The feelings experienced are called the valence of the experience, and these feelings are usually described in the literature as good/bad, enjoyed/not enjoyed, or satisfied/ dissatisfied with the experience (Chen & Dubinsky, 2003; Folkes & Patrick, 2003; Mano & Oliver, 1993; Raghubir & Menon, 2005). The first purpose of the study was to investigate the relationships between consumers' experience with apparel catalog/TV shopping and their experience with apparel online shopping. The results showed that participants who had more experiences and who had a positive feeling about their experience with buying apparel products from catalogs had more experiences with apparel online shopping. However, participants' TV shopping experiences did not have significant relationships with apparel online shopping. Participants who had more positive feelings about their experience with buying apparel products online purchased apparel product more frequently, bought more apparel items, and spent greater amount of money on apparel products online. The second purpose of the study was to investigate the effects of consumers' experience with apparel online shopping and brand-self image congruity on their experience with a specific brand. The results showed that participants who had more experiences with buying apparel products online and who perceived the image of a specific brand as more consistent with their self image had more experiences with a specific brand, indicating that they purchased apparel product of the brand more frequently, bought more items of the brand, and spent greater amount of money on the brand. The third purpose of the study was to investigate the effects of consumers' experience with a specific brand and brand-self image congruity on their perceived risk and purchase intention in buying a specific brand online. The results of perceived risk showed that for all participants, including those with and without experience with a specific brand, those had more experiences with a specific brand and those perceived the image of a specific brand as more consistent with their self-image perceived less risk in buying the apparel products of the brand online. However, participants who already had experience with a specific brand perceived less risk in buying the brand online if they had positive feeling about their experience with the brand despite of the frequency of previous experience (i.e., the extent of the experience with a specific brand). In the results of purchase intention, similar results to that of perceived risk were found for all participants. Those had more experiences with a specific brand and those perceived the image of a specific brand as more consistent with their self-image had higher purchase intention in buying the apparel products of the brand online. However, among the participants who had experience with the specific brand, only brand-self image congruity influenced their perceived risk and purchase intention. Either the extent or valence of the experience with the brand did not directly influence their purchase intention in buying the brand online. Instead, these experiences indirectly influenced the purchase intention through perceived risk. In conclusion, participants' experience with apparel online shopping and brand-self image congruity were significant factors on their perceived risk and purchase intention in apparel online shopping context. Participants who had more and positive experience with apparel online shopping and those whose self image was more consistent with the brand image perceived less risk and had higher purchase intention in buying apparel products of the brand online. This study extends the understanding of consumers' apparel online shopping behavior by identifying the roles of experiences and brand-self image congruity in apparel online shopping context. Based on the findings, suggestions for marketing strategies in apparel online shopping were provided.
The Effects of Frequency of Testing on College Students in a Principles of Marketing Course
Deck, D. William Jr. (Virginia Tech, 1998-10-30)
This study was designed to determine if college students perform differently when they are tested more frequently than less frequently. The purpose of this research study was: (a) to determine if there is a difference in achievement between students given weekly tests (experimental group) and students given monthly tests (control group), (b) to determine if there is a difference in knowledge retention between students given weekly tests and students given monthly tests, and (c) to determine if there is a difference in time spent studying between students given weekly tests and students given monthly tests. The research design used was a true experimental form of the posttest-only with control technique. The participants were 109 students taking Principles of Marketing at Concord College in Athens, West Virginia. Fifty were enrolled in the fall of 1996, and the study was replicated with 59 students who were enrolled in the spring of 1997. Half of each class (fall and spring) was randomly assigned to weekly testing and the other halves were assigned to monthly testing. The weekly and monthly groups were taught simultaneously by the researcher both semesters. To test for differences in achievement between the weekly group and the monthly group, the mean test scores were compared at 80-question intervals. To test for differences in knowledge retention between the weekly group and the monthly group, the mean final exam scores were compared. To test for differences in hours spent studying between the weekly group and the monthly group, the means from the self-reported study hours surveys were compared at 80-question intervals. Based on the results of analysis of covariance, the research showed a significant difference in achievement between the weekly and the monthly groups in favor of the weekly group ( p = .007). However, the difference between the weekly and monthly group final exam scores was not significant ( p = .553), and the difference between the weekly and monthly groups' self-reported study hours was also not significant ( p = .231).
Effects of Relationship Quality on Customer Perceived Value in Organizational Purchasing
Gao, Tao Jr. (Virginia Tech, 1998-08-03)
Research and practitioners alike have underscored the importance of customer value creation in marketing. For any marketing practice to be successful, it must first create value for customers. This is also true for the practice of relationship marketing, which is enjoying popularity among organizational marketers. However, there has been a lack of research done on the predictive effects of relationship marketing constructs in relation to buyer perceived value in organizational marketing. In other words, we still know little about the mechanism through which a good relationship enhances customer perceived value. The primary purpose of this study is to conceptually develop and empirically test a model that explains how the quality of a buyer-supplier relationship affects the buyer's value judgment in an organizational purchasing context. In the study, relationship quality is defined as comprising three different but mutually reinforcing dimensions: mutual trust, mutual commitment, and interdependence. Perceived value is conceptualized as an overall assessment of the utility of an offering based on the benefits and costs of accepting an offering. The conceptual model specifies the several routes through which relationship quality impacts buyer perceived value. First, a good relationship increases relationship benefits and reduces relationship costs, which in turn influences customer value perception - the higher the relationship benefits (and lower relationship costs), the higher the customer perceived value. Second, a good relationship reduces decision-making uncertainty. Lower decision-making uncertainty is hypothesized to increase the effects of perceived purchase episode benefits and perceived purchase episode costs on perceived value. The model was generally confirmed by an empirical test based on data collected from a national sample of purchasing managers in the United States.
An Empirical Examination of Boundary Conditions of Relational Exchange
Grzeskowiak, Stephan (Virginia Tech, 2006-03-31)
Current marketing channel literature overwhelmingly suggests that entering exchange relationships leads to positive outcomes for the exchange parties. Yet, not all exchanges employ relational exchange. Thus, research appears to lack an understanding of the boundary conditions of successful relational exchange. This dissertation contributes to filling this gap by clarifying what is understood as relational exchange and differentiating it from vertical integration. Here, a two-dimensional perspective on exchange structure is offered that integrates our view of relational exchange and extends the conceptualization of vertical integration beyond sole ownership. To derive boundary conditions of relational exchange the literature on interorganizational relationships is integrated into six determinants and two key outcomes of relational exchange. These boundary conditions thus represent the facilitating circumstances that make relational exchange viable and the outcomes of relational exchange that exchange partners seek to achieve.
Exploratory investigation of organization power, and its impact on strategy implementation and firm performance: a study of the hospitality franchise systems
Parsa, Haragopal "HG" (Virginia Tech, 1994)
Franchising is the primary force in the growth and survival of the hospitality industry. Franchise systems contain legally independent, economically interdependent, and politically affective franchise organizations. Strategic management in hospitality franchise systems with emphasis on implementation methods is investigated in the present study. Impact of sources of power (economic and noneconomic), held by the franchisors, on franchisees’ strategy implementation process and eventual performance are also included in this study. Single unit Quick Service Restaurant (OSR) franchisees from six different concepts have participated in this study. A total of ten research hypotheses are empirically tested using various statistical procedures. The current study demonstrates that implementation plays an important role in determining performance (satisfaction) of an organization. It also shows that sources of power impact organizational performance (satisfaction) whether measured as revenues or profits. The QSR franchisees’ satisfaction with franchise arrangements is affected by the nature power sources. The results indicate that some implementation models are more effective than others, and different performance objectives demand different implementation models. The "match" between the outcome objectives and the implementation model is essential to achieve the desired performance. Different sources of power (coercive, legitimate, referent, and information) have varying effects on organizational performance, financial or nonfinancial. Originality of the instrument is one of the major methodological contributions of the study. Positive and statistically significant results achieved in the current study offer empirical validity to the instrument. Another major contribution is the confirmation of earlier studies by several authors on relation between power and satisfaction, and power and performance using the hospitality industry setting. The results also indicate that for long term survival, the OSR franchisees must consider different implementation models and their congruence with the nature of power present in the franchise system.
An exploratory study of franchisee turnover and its relationship with franchisee satisfaction
Chiu, Esther Y. (Virginia Tech, 1992-05-15)
The purpose of this study is to investigate franchisee turnover practice and empirically test the relationship between franchisee satisfaction and turnover behavior. A total of 402 franchisees of a quick service franchise system were surveyed by using two sets of structured questionnaires. Sixty-seven current and 24 terminated franchisee participated in the study, yielding a response rate of 29.8%. Based on the objective and research questions, two hypotheses were established and tested. The testing of the hypotheses indicated a significant difference between the satisfaction of terminated and current franchisees on service support, social interaction, and general satisfaction. Also, there is a relationship between franchisee’s satisfaction and his or her future intention. Through factor analysis two critical factors were identified closely related to the satisfaction and future intention of current and terminated franchisees.
Governance Mechanisms as a Means of Increasing Consumer Trust in Online Exchanges: A Signaling Perspective
Cook, Don Lloyd (Virginia Tech, 2001-12-12)
Many consumers seem to be uncomfortable or unwilling in making online transactions. This lack of trust stems in part from the online exchange process itself where consumers are deprived of many traditional cues that they would use to evaluate this process. This research focuses on consumer perceptions of regulatory governance in online exchanges and how signals of governance might act to increase consumer trust in online transac-tions. An experimental methodology was used to examine the effects of different types of structures on consumer perceptions and to provide direction for public policy makers as well as online businesses and private regulatory entities.
The grocery shopping attitudes and behaviors of convenience store patrons
Dowdy, Marshall Dean (Virginia Tech, 1994-07-12)
This study measured the grocery shopping behavior of households through a hand delivered and hand retrieved questionnaire. The focus of this study was the identification of the convenience store as a place where grocery shoppers purchase fill-in grocery items between major supermarket trips. The survey measured the shopping behavior of households toward supermarkets and the shopping behavior of the households toward convenience stores. This study replicates the Sequence of Effects Model of grocery shopping behavior and a grocery shopping strategy typology to address the issue of how convenience store patrons differ from non patrons in their attitudes and behavior toward grocery shopping and in their attitudes and behavior toward their primary supermarkets. This research also addressed the differences in relationships with the primary convenience store among patrons with different rates of patronage. The attitude of grocery shoppers regarding their trust of supermarkets to have fair prices and quality products was found to influence their perception of their primary supermarkets. Grocery shoppers were also found to express an inverse relationship between the feelings of time pressure during fill-in grocery shopping trips and their perception of their primary supermarkets. The typology of grocery shoppers was found to describe different convenience store patrons as well as supermarket patrons. Typology membership indicates the likelihood of a shopper being a convenience store patron. Convenience store patrons were found to give lower evaluations to their primary supermarkets, to feel greater time pressure during fill-in shopping, and to be less involved in information search than non patrons. They were also found to have larger evoked sets than grocery shoppers who do not patronize convenience stores. Convenience store patrons were found to hold greater feelings of personalization and socialization with their primary convenience store when they had greater frequency rates. The supermarket was found to be the store of choice for fill-in grocery shopping by an overwhelming majority of grocery shoppers. The study results show theoretical, methodological, and substantive implications concerning grocery shopping behavior and the patronage of convenience stores. This study concludes with suggestions for future research.
Improving Productivity in a Service Business Evidence From the Hotel Industry
Brown, James R. (Cornell University School of Hotel Administration, 2000)
The objective of this paper is to compare, along three strategic dimensions, franchising with other types of operating arrangements in the lodging industry. The operating arrangements studied are, in addition to franchising, chain-managed and independent hotels. The three strategic dimensions include: (1) the variability or volatility of the task environment facing a hotel; (2) the business strategy chosen by a hotel's general manager; and (3) the level of sales revenue and profit margin achieved by a hotel.
Internal environment, organizational form and their impact on financial performance of hotel chains
Huo, Yang Hwae (Virginia Tech, 1994-08-14)
The primary objective of this study was to investigate the relationship between internal environment, organizational form, and financial performance in hotel chains. Using a contingency framework, this study investigated the match between internal environmental factors--such as capital scarcity, monitoring cost, and asset specificity--and organizational form--such as company owned, franchised, or combination of both--in an attempt to distinguish between high and low performing hotel chains. The key findings of this study indicate that hotel chains which showed a "match" between the monitoring cost of their internal environmental factors and organizational form performed better than if those elements did not match. The other finding of this study indicates that hotel chains operating under different organizational forms, such as company-owned, franchised, and combination of both, did not differ in their financial performance levels which were measured in terms of return on investment and growth in unit sales. This study contributes to the body of knowledge in the lodging industry by introducing the contingency theory in investigating the interrelationship between internal environment, organizational form, and financial performance. In other words, this study utilized internal environmental factors such as capital scarcity, monitoring costs, and asset specificity as moderators in order to measure their impact on organizational forms and financial performance relationship. Specifically, this study provides unique ways to measure the internal environmental factors, organizational form, and financial performance: (1) capital scarcity was measured using financing activities data included in the statement cash flows, (2) organizational form of the firm was categorized into company-owned, franchised, and combination of both, and (3) financial performance was measured using return on investment (ROI) and growth in unit sales. From the industry point of view, the findings of this study will aid in recognizing organizational form in conjunction with internal environment and financial performance. This study provides empirical support with regard to the relative models in predicting appropriate organizational form that will show better financial performance. In other words, the firm that evaluates and analyzes its internal environmental factors could have the adequate organizational form that generates high profitability. From the theoretical point of view, this study provides a body of knowledge in franchising by providing empirical findings with regard to internal environmental factors in explaining the relationship between organizational form and financial performance. Furthermore, this study contributes to the existing agency theory literature in franchising by providing empirical research to the evaluative contingency theory.
Marketing channels and transaction cost analysis: the role of transaction specific investment
Ponsford, Brenda Jeanette (Virginia Tech, 1993)
Researchers have theorized that Transaction Cost Analysis paradigm draws a connection between transaction specific investment and opportunism with guile. This dissertation investigated this relationship during and after the negotiation process with a focus on contractual safeguarding. It was hypothesized that the pattern of the level of anticipated investment in transaction specific investment was related to choice of governance clause (i.e., contractual safeguarding) in the final negotiated contract. Additionally, it was hypothesized that anticipated investment in transaction specific assets would be related to the amount of opportunism (operationalized as falsity) prevalent in the negotiation process. Also, it was hypothesized that after the contract was formed, the resultant investment in transaction specific assets was inversely related to opportunism (operationalized as a reduction in contract performance quality). Anticipated and resultant investment differ in that anticipated investment is proposed and not committed while resultant is not only committed investment but also includes the investment that would result with the enforcement of the negotiated contract clauses. These relationships were tested using a negotiation simulation utilizing working MBA students as subjects. It was found that the pattern of the level of anticipated investment was related to final negotiated contract clause choice. The anticipated investment level patterns and final negotiated contract clauses were related as follows: 1) anticipated symmetric low investment was related to a market forces form of contractual safeguarding, 2) anticipated symmetric high investment was related to a bilateral form of contractual safeguarding, and 3) anticipated asymmetric investment patterns were related to unilateral clauses favoring the high investor. It was concluded that even in a climate of win-win negotiations and emphasis on trust building, that parties to a contract still desire contractually based safeguards appropriate to their anticipated investment in transaction specific investment. No relationship between anticipated investment level and opportunism in the form of falsity in communications was found. Despite the rejection of this hypothesized relationship, it was concluded that one cannot depend on the anticipation of investment to serve as a disincentive to opportunism in the form of falsity in the negotiation process. No relationship between resultant investment level and opportunism in the form of reduction of quality performance was found. Despite the rejection of this hypothesized relationship, it was concluded that one cannot depend on the presence of resultant investment to serve as a disincentive to opportunism in the form of reduction of quality of contract performance. Contributions derived from this research included a disclosure/falsity scale survey items and a content analysis system for rating false communications ranging from bluffing to lying.
The salesperson-manager exchange relationship: the impact of competence, latitude and loyalty
DelVecchio, Susan K. (Virginia Tech, 1992-02-11)
Sales management researchers apply various leadership measures and theories taken from conventional work-group settings. These applications may be questionable given the unique boundary-spanning context in which the field sales force must operate. This study raises the questions and offers an approach which may be more appropriate. Specifically, this study questions the assumption that the manager acts and the salesperson reacts, and the focus of sales management studies which study managerial behavior in isolation from those of the salesperson he or she is supervising. The Leader-member Exchange theory (and the basis for this theory, social exchange) is offered as an approach which may be more consistent with the work-setting and obstacles faced by the field sales manager. This study offers a conceptual model of salesperson-manager relationships as a guide to explaining effective leadership in the field sales setting. A study was conducted on a subset of this conceptual model. Using the survey responses of industrial field salespeople and their managers, this study tested (1) the exchange relationships between the perceived behaviors of both the manager and salesperson, (2) the degree to which these exchanges influence the salesperson’s overall assessment of the salesperson-manager relationship, (3) the degree to which this assessment affects job-related outcomes and (4) the impact of environmental uncertainty on this boundary spanning link between salesperson and manager. The results of this study provides some support for the notion of an exchange relationship between the salesperson and manager. An exchange relationship may exist between the salesperson’s competency and the manager’s latitude. The salesperson’s assessment of the working relationship is based on the latitude received and the loyalty felt toward the manager {rather than his or her contributions of competency). This approach to studying the effects of leader behavior was effective in explaining salesperson satisfaction levels. It was less effective in predicting the goal achievement levels of the field sales force. Finally, the results of this study indicate the amount of uncertainty in the environment may have a direct effect on goal achievement levels of the salespeople, but lacks a moderating influence over the link between salesperson-manager relationships and outcomes.
The screening of new product concepts: information use and the effects of experience and expertise
Hunt, Michelle R. (Virginia Tech, 1994-07-05)
The effects of experience and expertise on managers' search for information while screening new product concepts were investigated using a computer interactive screening simulation. Relationships between respondents' attributions about product success and failure, their judgments of the diagnosticity (predictive usefulness) of different types of information, and information search were also investigated. Sixty-two respondents from the microcomputer software industry and the pharmaceutical industry were involved in the study. They searched for information about three new product concepts, then evaluated the three concepts. The three concepts were designed to vary the decision context--one concept had predominantly favorable attributes, one had predominantly unfavorable attributes, and one was mixed. The study showed that experience and expertise were related but distinct constructs which could have differing effects on information search and on concept evaluation. Under conditions of favorable and mixed attributes, increased expertise and experience led to less information search. Expertise was related to spending less time in search, while experience was related to spending more time searching for information. Both constructs were related to managers' perceptions of information diagnosticity. Both constructs were also related to the cutoffs used when screening new product concepts, though the relationships depended on the criteria for screening as well as the respondent's industry. Expertise was related to the evaluation of the new product concepts, while experience was not.
The service industry and the aging population: marketing opportunities in a dynamic environment
Hinson, Cathy Creed (Virginia Tech, 1988-08-05)
The care of the elderly is a growing problem. Existing services are inadequate for the needs of an aging population. In order to suggest new services to deal with the care of the elderly, this report examined four areas: the demographic characteristics of our aging society, the nature of services in general, services provided to the elderly population, and the application of role theory to the caregiver/care recipient dyad. Role theory identified conflicts felt by both the caregiver and care recipient. These conflicts were explored in three sets of focus group interviews: women 65 years old and older, women familiar with the experience of primary caregiver, and women between the ages of 23 and 42 (the age range representative of the Baby Boom cohort). Information from these interviews was used to understand both current and future perceptions of the elderly and of the role of caregivers in this society and what services they perceive are necessary for the elderly to function independently in this society.

Browsing by Author "Brown, James R."

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