Browsing by Author "Rosson, Mary Beth"
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- An Architecture for Collaborative Math and Science Digital LibrariesKrowne, Aaron Phillip (Virginia Tech, 2003-07-19)In this thesis I present Noosphere, a system for the collaborative production of digital libraries. Further, I describe the special features of Noosphere which allow it to support mathematical and scientific content, and how it applies an encyclopedic organizational style. I also describe how Noosphere frees the digital library maintainer from a heavy administrative burden by implementing the design pattern of zero content administration. Finally, I discuss evidence showing that Noosphere works and is sustainable, both in the a priori and empirical senses.
- Authoring of Help by End-users in an Online Community NetworkJagannathan, Vinoth (Virginia Tech, 2002-12-19)One of the key features of an online community network is that there is no central management authority; the community members themselves manage it. At the same time, for any application to be complete it must have a useful help system. So, for a community network to be completely run by the members, the task of creating and manipulating help documents must also be handled by the members/end-users. Previous studies about community networks show that extensive volunteer effort is one of the basic characteristics of a community network. Therefore a study about end-user authoring is possible in a community network. Minimalism is an instruction design method that helps users to learn about the system by performing real tasks. This study aimed at analyzing the possibilities of guiding the end-users to create a better minimalist help document than a more traditional and comprehensive one. The users' performance and preferences were used to compare the two approaches. The study also focused on users' preference to using minimalist help documents versus traditional help documents. The results indicated that it is possible to guide the end-users to create minimalist help documents. However, no significant results were found to conclude that the end-user authored minimalist help document would be better than an end-user authored traditional help document. The results also indicated that, although significant results were not found, the users seem to prefer a more traditional help, than a minimalist help, for a community network. The implications of the study and recommendations for future work are presented.
- Capturing Requirements Meeting Customer Intent: A Methodological ApproachGröner, Markus K. (Virginia Tech, 2002-05-10)Product quality is directly related to how well that product meets the customer's needs and intents. It is paramount, therefore, to capture customer requirements correctly and succinctly. Unfortunately, most development models tend to avoid, or only vaguely define the process by which requirements are generated. Other models rely on formalistic characterizations that require specialized training to understand. To address such drawbacks we introduce the Requirements Generation Model (RGM) that (a) decomposes the conventional "requirements analysis" phase into sub-phases which focus and refine requirements generation activities, (b) constrains and structures those activities, and (c) incorporates a monitoring methodology to assist in detecting and resolving deviations from process activities defined by the RGM. We present an empirical study of the RGM in an industrial setting, and results derived from this study that substantiate the effectiveness of the RGM in producing a better set of requirements.
- A Case Study in the Participatory Design of a Collaborative Science-Based Learning EnvironmentChin, George (Virginia Tech, 2004-08-02)Educational technology research studies have found computer and software technologies to be underutilized in U.S. classrooms. In general, many teachers have had difficulty integrating computer and software technologies into learning activities and classroom curricula because specific technologies are ill-suited to their needs, or they lack the ability to make effective use of these technologies. In the development of commercial and business applications, participatory design approaches have been applied to facilitate the direct participation of users in system analysis and design. Among the benefits of participatory design include mutual learning between users and developers, envisionment of software products and their use contexts, empowerment of users in analysis and design, grounding of design in the practices of users, and growth of users as designers and champions of technology. In the context of educational technology development, these similar consequences of participatory design may lead to more appropriate and effective education systems as well as greater capacities by teachers to apply and integrate educational systems into their teaching and classroom practices. We present a case study of a participatory design project that took place over a period of two and one half years, and in which teachers and developers engaged in the participatory analysis and design of a collaborative science learning environment. A significant aspect of the project was the development methodology we followed - Progressive Design. Progressive Design evolved as an integration of methods for participatory design, ethnography, and scenario-based design. In this dissertation, we describe the Progressive Design approach, how it was used, and its specific impacts and effects on the development of educational systems and the social and cognitive growth of teachers.
- The Challenges of Web Engineering and Requirements for Better Tool SupportRode, Jochen; Rosson, Mary Beth; Pérez-Quiñones, Manuel A. (Department of Computer Science, Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University, 2005)We report the experiences of semi-professional developers regarding the challenges, tools, and processes within the domain of web application development. The paper summarizes the main problems in web development, characterizes the habits of programmers and concludes with a "developer's wish list" for improvements to web technologies and tools. The report is based on two independent sources - a survey of 31 web developers and an in-depth interview study with 10 participants.
- A comparison between predictive and formative cost-effectiveness evaluation techniques for the assessment of lecture and computer-based multimedia trainingNeale, Vicki L. (Virginia Tech, 1996)In an effort to validate a predictive (as opposed to a traditional formative or summative) cost-effectiveness model, a study was conducted to evaluate Kearsley and Compton's (1981) Benefits Model. Costs were input into the model as they applied to the design, development, and dissemination of two training programs on the topic of teaching individuals how to detect the level of drowsiness of their colleagues during team operations. The benefits of the training programs were identified, classified, and quantified as they applied to two media: lecture and computer-based multimedia. The experimenter identified the training system parameters, training benefits, and operational benefits. Then, for the predictive approach, the relationships between training system parameters, training benefits, and operational benefits were classified based on expert opinion. Quantification concerned the assignment of values (-1 or +1) based on expert opinion. The costs to design, develop, and disseminate the training programs were determined based on the parameters of the project. Finally, based on all information present, experts determined which of two training programs would be the most cost-effective to disseminate. To determine the accuracy of the Benefits Model as a predictive assessment tool, the same identified training system parameters, training benefits, and operational benefits were evaluated from a traditional formative evaluation approach. An empirical evaluation was conducted for the two training programs and a determination of the most cost-effective training medium was made. The data collected in the traditional formative evaluation approach was then compared to the experts' ratings and choice of training programs. For both the predictive and formative evaluation approach to determining cost-effectiveness, the computer-based multimedia was chosen as the most cost-effective training medium. However, for the predictive approach, the experts’ choice was based either solely or heavily on dollar amounts associated with design, development, and dissemination, while the data obtained through the validation process were given little or no weight. All experts stated that it would not have been possible to use the information gathered through application of the Benefits Model to determine cost-effectiveness with any confidence.
- Comparison of Various Display Representation Formats for Older Adults Using Inlab and Remote Usability TestingNarayan, Sajitha (Virginia Tech, 2004-03-29)The population of seniors is growing and will continue to increase in the next decade. Computer technology holds the promise of enhancing the quality of life and independence of older people as it may increase their ability to perform a variety of tasks. This is true for elderly. By the year 2030, people age 65 or older will comprise 22% of the population in the United States. As the population shifts so that a greater percentage are middle-aged and older adults, and as dependence on computer technology increases, it becomes more crucial to understand how to design computer displays for these older age groups. The research has compared various display representation formats to try to find out which is the best way to represent information to seniors in any form of display and the reason for the preferences. The formats compared include high and low density screens for abstract icon representation, concrete icon representation, tabular representation and graphical representation.This research also endeavored to study the effectiveness of remote usability testing as compared to inlab testing for seniors. Results indicated that density of screen is a very important factor affecting the performance of older adults. Density effect showed statistical significance F (1,112)=8.934, p< .05 from further post-hoc analysis that was conducted. Although significant results were not obtained, different formats of display representations may still be an area worth pursuing. Also it was noted that remote usability testing is not as effective as inlab testing for seniors in terms of time taken to conduct the study and the number of user comments collected. Implications, as well as recommendations and conclusions, of the study are presented.
- Computer-Supported Collaborative ProductionHowarth, Jonathan; Yost, Beth; Rosson, Mary Beth; Isenhour, Philip L.; Carroll, John M. (Department of Computer Science, Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University, 2006-03-01)This paper proposes the concept of collaborative production as a focus of concern within the general area of collaborative work. We position the concept with respect to McGrath's framework for small group dynamics and the more familiar collaboration processes of awareness, coordination, and communication (McGrath 1991). After reviewing research issues and computer-based support for these interacting aspects of collaboration, we turn to a discussion of implications for how to design improved support for collaborative production. We illustrate both the challenges of collaborative production and our design implications with a collaborative map-updating scenario drawn from the work domain of geographical information systems.
- Computerized simulations for geography instruction: sense of placeHines, David T. (Virginia Tech, 1995-05-05)
Sense of Place is a Project GeoSim educational software module focusing on U.S. states and counties. A comprehensive statistical database is combined with a set of simple visualization techniques to allow geography students to gain an understanding of the characteristics of states and counties. Students can examine data for anyone of the statistical variables in the database. In addition, students can create me tries consisting of target values for several variables, and rate counties or states by how closely their data match the targets. Symbolic mapping is used to illustrate spatial characteristics of a state or county, such as its size, shape, and location, as well as regional patterns among different states and counties. Graphing is used to illustrate basic concepts of data distributions and to depict the distributions of specific variables. A spreadsheet is used to view the multivariate data sets created by user metrics. These visualization techniques and the graphical user interface tools required to control them are incorporated into interchangeable "views". This approach allows additional views to be added to Sense of Place in the future.
- A consignment library of reusable software components for use over the World-Wide WebHicklin, R. Austin (Virginia Tech, 1995-05-24)This research project report discusses the development of a commercial, consignment-based library (a) of reusable software components to be accessed using the World-Wide Web. The research project consists of two parts: the development of a prototype system that provides interface and information retrieval functionality for such a system, and an analysis of the technical and business issues involved in making the library operational as a commercial entity. The prototype system uses a hypertext browser and a query-based search mechanism to access descriptions of reusable software components; these descriptions are structured by a variation of a faceted classification system. The issues addressed include the classification and description of reusable software components; methods of retrieval, especially library browsing methods based on component classification; and analysis of incentives for reuse.
- Culture and International Usability Testing:The Effects of Culture in InterviewsVatrapu, Ravikiran (Virginia Tech, 2002-08-06)Designing global interfaces for users has always been a challenge. This challenge is even greater today with the current trend of globalization, which leads to highly diverse users of the same product. The global audiences for the software and information technology products belong to different countries, different religions, speak different languages, have different life styles, belong to different cultures and have different perceptions and expectations of the same product. A truly global product must inherently accommodate this diversity in order to be effective and successful. A major impediment is that there is very inadequate understanding of the role of culture in user interfaces and how they are built. This lack of understanding is further compounded by the fact that very little empirical work exists regarding the role of culture in usability testing. The objectives of this research are to study and empirically establish the effects of culture on the usability assessment technique of structured interviews. A study was conducted to determine the effects of culture on Indian participants when structured interviews are used in usability testing. The experiment consisted of usability testing of two independent groups of Indian participants by two interviewers; one belonging to the Indian culture and the other to the Anglo-American culture. The findings from the study clearly demonstrate the effects of culture on structured interviews during international user testing. Participants found more usability problems and made more suggestions to the interviewer from their own culture than to the interviewer from a foreign culture. The results of the study prove that culture affects the efficacy of structured interviews during international user testing.
- The design and use of Internet-mediated communication applications in education: an ethnographic studyLaughton, Stuart Charles (Virginia Tech, 1996-05-16)This dissertation presents a study of the design and use of computer-mediated communication (CMC) in education. It concentrates on a specific type of Internet-based CMC called asynchronous structured discourse (ASD). Using ethnographic methods and data from real-word case studies. this research focuses on three related problems. First, the effective application of any technology (like ASD) within any domain of complex practice (like education) requires collaboration between technology specialists and domain practitioners. This research studies both the techniques of collaborative design and the relationship between collaborators within the process. Second. while the use of computer networks in education offers obvious benefits (e.g., allowing the separation of students in time and space) much remains to be learned about the more subtle possibilities and effects of ASD (and CMC, in general) in education. This study focusses on the social. motivational. and organizational possibilities and effects of ASD applications. Finally. a meta-level focus of this research is assessing the utility of ethnography for computer application design and research. Design process results include the following argument for effective collaborative design: 1) The object of collaborative design should include the pedagogical activity, as well as the technological system; 2) Scenarios are particularly useful as activity design representations (but. must be augmented with other representations of system design); 3) Collaborative design includes an inherent power asymmetry insofar as technologists define and orchestrate the methodology; 4) But, educators and technologists can and should design together in direct collaboration. Results regarding ASO applications include the following argument for effective use: 1) ASO applications provide an effective means to transcend the traditional classroom social structure; 2) But, they should be used as a complementary medium within educational activities (not as a replacement for face-to-face interaction): 3) They can inject writing into instruction in an unobtrusive and authentic form; 4) And, they help shift the paradigm of learning from individual apprehension of knowledge to social construction of knowledge. Finally, this dissertation demonstrates that ethnographic methods can be effective for application design and research. In particular. it defines and demonstrates a specific methodology for ethnography-based collaborative design.
- Design Readiness: An Exploratory Model of Object-Oriented Design PerformanceLewis, Tracy L. (Virginia Tech, 2004-07-16)The available literature supports the fact that some students experience difficulty learning object-oriented design (OOD) principles. Previously explored predictors of OOD learning difficulties include student characteristics (cognitive activities, self-efficacy), teaching methodologies (teacher centered, course complexity), and student experiences (prior programming experience). Yet, within an extensive body of literature devoted to OOD, two explanations of student difficulty remain largely unexplored: (1) varying conceptualizations of the underlying principles/strategies of OOD, and (2) preparedness or readiness to learn OOD. This research also investigated the extent to which individual differences impacted DRAS and OOD performance. The individual difference measures of interest in this study included college grade point average, prior programming experience, cognitive abilities (spatial orientation, visualization, logical reasoning, flexibility, perceptual style), and design readiness. In addition, OOD performance was measured using two constructs: course grade (exams, labs, programs, overall), and a specially constructed design task. Participants selected from the CS2 course from two southeastern state universities were used within this study, resulting in a sample size of 161 (School A, n = 76; School B, n = 85). School A is a mid-sized comprehensive university and School B is a large research-intensive university. If was found that the schools significantly differed on all measures of prior computer science experience and cognitive abilities. Path analysis was conducted to determine which individual differences were related to design readiness and OOD performance. In summary, this research identified that instructors can not ignore individual differences when teaching OOD. It was found that the cognitive ability visualization, prior OO experience, and overall college grade point average should be considered when teaching OOD. As it stands, without identifying specific teaching strategies used at the schools within this study, this research implies that OOD may require a certain level of practical computer experience before OOD is introduced into the curriculum. The cognitive ability visualization was found to have a significant indirect relationship with overall course grade through the mediating variable design readiness. Further, the results suggest that the DRAS may serve as a viable instrument in identifying successful OOD students as well as students that require supplemental OOD instruction.
- Developing Heuristics to Optimize the Configuration of the Video-Mediated EnvironmentGrenville, N. Delia (Virginia Tech, 2001-04-11)A study was conducted to determine the preferences for the design of distributed meeting rooms used for video enhanced electronic meeting systems (VEMS). Although there is a significant body of literature in the group communication domain, the research in this multidisciplinary area has paid minimal attention to users' environmental preferences in the design of a meeting space. A basic science approach through three studies was used to explore the variables that defined the design of a distributed meeting space from the user's perspective. Twenty-five inexperienced college-enrolled participants and twenty-five experienced Naval professionals used foam-core pieces to create a design of their ideal distributed meeting space. Thirty-seven variables were used to categorize qualitative attributes of the designs. Three types of designs emerged from the sample population: v-shaped, conference (u-shaped or oval), and theater (auditorium) style. A nonexperimental design was used to measure the impact of the heuristics on the users' physical design of their distributed meeting spaces. Post-meeting evaluation results were promising and indicated that the heuristics were usable and that participating in the design could have a positive impact on user's subjective rating of their meeting experience. Overall, inexperienced users did not believe that the heuristics were necessary to determine the best room design for their team's needs. In the third study, six experts conducted an expert evaluation of a distributed meeting room site. Most experts were not able to identify context-specific design issues such as camera angle and lighting with the static information that they were provided. The experts subjective ratings indicated that the heuristics were usable and were useful for room designers. The overall findings indicated that experience level had a significant impact on user's perception of important equipment in a distributed meeting room. Naïve users were more concerned with visual communication and assigned more importance to public displays (p=.035). Experienced users were more concerned with audio communication and assigned more importance to microphone control (p=.024). In addition, general findings from this research include a new methodology for generating participatory ergonomic tools.
- The Effect of Technology on Social Interaction in Local Community OrganizationsSnook, Jason Spence (Virginia Tech, 2002-05-10)With each new innovation in technology since at least the Industrial Revolution, and probably before, optimists and pessimists have squared off in a cyclic debate over the impact of the day's newest technology. Self-proclaimed futurists for centuries have attempted to foretell the impact of technology on society with varied success. The goal of this research project is to study the effect of computer network technology on the social interactions of the local community organizations in Blacksburg, VA. Online surveys filled out by the leaders and members of these organizations measure different aspects of each organization and the use and usage of Internet technology within that organization. Correlations between the two may help us identify ways technology has affected the way we communicate with one another. Are community organizations communicating more or less? If so, how? Has face-to-face interaction been forsaken in lieu of technology such as email? The effects found in the survey results should give way to meaningful discourse on how technology can best be used to aid social interaction in local organizations.
- The Effects of Roles and Personality Characteristics on Software Development Team EffectivenessStevens, K. Todd Jr. (Virginia Tech, 1998-03-20)The objective of this research is to show the utility of roles and personality characteristics to the evaluation and formation of software development teams. The goals of this research include demonstrating empirically that Belbin's team roles can be used to form and evaluate software teams, providing a partial validation of the analyses by using the Belbin roles to analyze teams from the software industry, and comparing the personality data collected for this research to data from two previous studies and to the general population. In the highly competitive software industry, improving the software development process can be critical to a company's success. More specifically, improving a team's productivity can save employers significant time and money. This investigation addresses the productivity of software development teams in a series of studies. First, controlled studies empirically show that Belbin's roles can be used in team formation to improve team performance. Second, additional studies, both qualitative and quantitative, demonstrate that Belbin's roles can be used as criteria in team evaluation and formation. Finally, teams from the software development industry are evaluated, providing a partial validation of the usefulness of Belbin's roles to software teams. The cumulative effect of the results of the studies in this investigation demonstrate that Belbin's roles can be used effectively in team formation and evaluation. Specifically, Belbin's roles for leadership and innovation are shown in empirical studies to be important in the formation of software teams, and all of the Belbin roles are used in the evaluation of teams in academia as well as in industry. The results of this investigation should be used in team formation and evaluation, in an academic setting as well as in the software development industry. For team evaluation, deficiencies uncovered in the Belbin roles should be remedied, and positive aspects should be encouraged. In team formation, teams should contain the complement of Belbin roles and should specifically contain the leadership and innovation roles focused on as part of this investigation. It is clear from this investigation that Belbin's roles can be used effectively to improve software development teams.
- Empirical Methods for Evaluating Video-Mediated Collaborative WorkKies, Jonathan K. (Virginia Tech, 1997-03-18)Advancements in computer technology are making video conferencing a viable communication medium for desktop computers. These same advancements are changing the structure and means by which information workers conduct business. From a human factors perspective, however, the study of new communication technologies and their relationships with end users presents a challenging research domain. This study employed two diverse research approaches to the problem of reduced video frame rate in desktop video conferencing. In the first study, a psychophysical method was used to evaluate video image quality as a function of frame rate for a series of different scenes. Scenes varied in terms of level of detail, velocity of panning, and content. Results indicate that for most scenes, differences in frame rate become less detectable above approximately 10 frames per second (fps), suggesting a curvilinear relationship between image quality and frame rate. For a traditional conferencing scene, however, a linear increase in frame rate produced a linear improvement in perceived image quality. High detail scenes were perceived to be of lower quality than the low detail scenes, while panning velocity had no effect. In the second study, a collection of research methods known as ethnography was used to examine long-term use of desktop video by collaborators in a real work situation. Participants from a graduate course met each week for seven weeks and worked on a class project under one of four communication conditions: face-to-face, 1 fps, 10 fps, and 25 fps. Dependent measures included interviews, questionnaires, interaction analysis measures, and ethnomethodology. Recommendations are made regarding the utility and expense of each method with respect to uncovering human factors issues in video-mediated collaboration. It is believed that this research has filled a significant gap in the human factors literature of advanced telecommunications and research methodology.
- An End-User Development Perspective on State-of-the-Art Web Development ToolsRode, Jochen; Howarth, Jonathan; Pérez-Quiñones, Manuel A.; Rosson, Mary Beth (Department of Computer Science, Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University, 2005)We reviewed and analyzed nine commercially available web development tools from the perspective of suitability for end-user development to compare and contrast alternative and best-of-breed approaches for particular problem areas within web application development (Getting Started, Workflow, Level of Abstraction, Layout, Database, Application Logic, Testing and Debugging, Learning and Scaling, Security, Collaboration, and Deployment). End-user development involves the creation of dynamic websites with support for features like authentication, conditional display, and searching/sorting by casual web developers who have some experience creating static websites but little or no programming knowledge. We found that current tools do not lack functionality, but rather have a variety of problems in ease of use for end users who are nonprogrammers. In particular, while many tools offer wizards and other features designed to facilitate specific aspects of end-user development, none of the tools that we reviewed supports a holistic approach to web application development. We discuss the implications of these problems and conclude with recommendations for the design of improved web development tools that would lower the entry barrier into web programming.
- An Examination of Decision Aid Reliance in a Dynamic EnvironmentBriggs, John Whitfield (Virginia Tech, 2003-12-11)Computerized decision aids are powerful tools to assist with decision-making. Decision models are designed to incorporate and analyze available data in order to present a recommended solution to a problem. Business decision makers, including accountants, have much to gain from integrating decision support technology with their own skills and experience. Several studies have determined that there are many instances in which these decision aids perform favorably to human decision-makers. Despite this fact, studies have shown that reliance upon these aids is incomplete, even when they process data in a highly efficient manner. On the other hand, decision aids have limitations. If such a decision support system is not updated to match changing conditions, relying on the aid can lead to suboptimal decision-making. This study uses a laboratory experiment involving a managerial accounting task: prediction of manufacturing overhead costs. In the experimental scenario, a decision support system's recommended solutions become inaccurate due to a shift in environmental conditions. The first research objective is to determine whether subjects rely on the aid's advice before this change and, to their detriment, after the change. The second research objective is to examine whether the feedback environment, the timing of the decision aid's inclusion into the task, or the inherent confidence level of the task participant affect the tendency to rely on the aid in both of these environmental conditions. The results of the study provide evidence that decision-makers rely on decision aids, and are susceptible to over-reliance on them. These findings add to the results of prior studies that only examine a single trial task. Additionally, it is determined that the timing of a decision aid's recommendation can affect the degree to which it is relied upon. Next, there is evidence that feedback environment can help reliance and mitigate over-reliance. There is no evidence that task confidence affects reliance. Lastly, decision aids result in longer amounts of time used to complete the task.
- Flexible Collaboration Transparency: Supporting Worker Independence in Replicated Application-Sharing SystemsBegole, James Michael Allen (Virginia Tech, 1998-12-15)This dissertation analyzes the usefulness of existing "conventional" collaboration-transparency systems, which permit the shared use of legacy, single-user applications. I find that conventional collaboration-transparency systems do not use network resources efficiently, and they impose an inflexible, tightly coupled style of collaboration because they do not adequately support important groupware principles: concurrent work, relaxed WYSIWIS, group awareness, and inherently collaborative tasks. This dissertation proposes and explores solutions to those deficiencies. The primary goal of this work is to maintain the benefits of collaboration transparency while relieving some of its disadvantages. To that end, I present an alternate implementation approach that provides many features previously seen only in applications specifically designed to support cooperative work, called collaboration-aware applications. The new approach uses a replicated architecture, in which a copy of the application resides on each user's machine, and the users' input events are broadcast to each copy. I discuss solutions to certain key problems in replicated architectures, such as maintaining consistency, unanticipated sharing, supporting late-joiners, and replicating system resources (e.g., files, sockets, and random number generators). To enhance the collaborative usability of a legacy application, the new approach transparently replaces selected single-user interface objects with multi-user versions at runtime. There are four requirements of an application platform needed to implement this approach: process migration, run-time object replacement, dynamic binding, and the ability to intercept and introduce low-level user input events. As an instance of this approach, I describe its incorporation into a new Java-based collaboration-transparency system, called Flexible JAMM (Java Applets Made Multi-user). This dissertation reports the results of a controlled empirical study that evaluated the usefulness of Flexible JAMM versus a representative conventional collaboration-transparency system, Microsoft NetMeeting. The results validate that Flexible JAMM meets its goals, and uncover usability problems in both systems, particularly with respect to using floor control. Additionally, the dissertation reports the results of an informal study that evaluated using Flexible JAMM as a groupware toolkit. This dissertation demonstrates that it is possible to bring collaboration transparency closer to the advantages afforded by collaboration awareness. Furthermore, the prototype system demonstrates that collaboration-aware toolkits can include multi-user versions of some standard single-user components that require no collaboration-specific programming by the toolkit user. Thus, the results of this research advance the state of the art in both collaboration-transparency systems and collaboration-aware toolkits.
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