Reports, Virginia Center for Coal and Energy Research

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An Analysis of Household Water Supply Impacts by Underground Coal Mining in Virginia
Zipper, Carl E.; Balfour, William; Randolph, John; Roth, Richard A. (Virginia Tech. Virginia Center for Coal and Energy Research., 1994-05)
Underground coal mining can affect wells and springs used as water supplies. Subsidence caused by underground mining is generally acknowledged to be a primary cause of groundwater resource effects. In coal producing regions of Virginia and neighboring states, many rural residents depend on groundwater as their primary water source. Although it is well known that underground mines can impact groundwater supplies, guidelines for determining if a specific mining operation will be likely to affect a particular water supply have not been developed for the Virginia coalfield area. Complicating factors include variations in mining methods, depth of mining, and geology among locations within the Virginia coalfield area, and between the Virginia coalfield and mining areas in other states. Throughout central Appalachia, contested allegations of water supply impacts have been the subject of disputes between mining firms and residents. The costs associated with disruptions of groundwater supplies in rural areas can be substantial. When a household's water supply is disrupted, an alternative supply must be developed or the property must be abandoned. One way or the other, somebody must pay. When the cause of a water supply disruption is disputed, both sides must bear costs to resolve that dispute, through litigation or other means. Rational resource management requires that clear guidelines be available for determining cause-and-effect relationships. Such guidelines are not currently available for application to potential water supply impacts of underground mining operations in Virginia. The purpose of this paper is to report the results of an analysis of water supply impacts of underground mining in Virginia. We analyzed reports of 73 water supply investigations conducted by the Virginia Division of Mined Land Reclamation (VDMLR). These investigations were conducted between 1981 and 1987 for the purpose of resolving disputes between surface residents and underground mining firms. The results of the VDMLR investigations were analyzed with reference to guidelines for identifying the zone of subsidence influence on groundwater supplies which were prepared by geologist Henry Rauch (1989). based on research which he and his students conducted in the northern West Virginia - western Pennsylvania area. Rauch's "rules of thumb" are the most complete and explicit published guidelines for determining subsidence impacts on water supplies in Appalachia. This research addresses a subject that is relevant to recently enacted legislation. Section 2504 of the federal Energy Policy Act of 1992 requires mining firms to replace water supplies damaged by underground mining. Virginia House Bill 1687 (1993) also requires water replacement. In developing regulations to implement these laws, federal and state agencies must develop guidelines for determining whether or not alleged water supply impacts are, in fact, mining related.
ARIES Executive Summary
Jong, Edmund C.; Boardman, Gregory D.; Karmis, Michael E. (Virginia Tech. Virginia Center for Coal and Energy Research, 2019-07-30)
The following document contains an executive summary of key findings from the Appalachian Research Initiative for Environmental Science (ARIES). Further details for these findings may be found in the referenced peer-reviewed publications and project reports. The ARIES body of work was developed from 2011 to 2016. Thus, published ARIES results will not reflect any evolutions in policy and research that occurred after this timeframe. Although some issues may be different today, the breakthrough research conducted by the ARIES community continues to provide invaluable insights into these areas of interest.
ARIES Research Summary
Jong, Edmund C.; Boardman, Gregory D.; Karmis, Michael E. (Virginia Tech. Virginia Center for Coal and Energy Research, 2019-01-03)
In the mid-2000s, concerns were raised about the impact of Appalachian coal mining and especially mountaintop mining. These concerns were prompted by various research studies that alleged a direct link between coal mining and various negatively trending aspects of community health. Some studies related coal mining to higher rates of cancer and infant mortality. Other investigations claimed that coal mining perpetuated poverty and harms community character. These alarming reports prompted a significant public outcry that resulted in litigation and regulatory attention toward the coal industry. In response, a number of meetings and strategic sessions were held in 2009 and 2010 to address these concerns. Major Appalachian coal producers, coal associations, and essential coal infrastructure companies participated in these conferences. After rigorous debate, the participants decided to form an independent research program designed to address community concerns through objective, focused research. This program was designated the Appalachian Research Initiative for Environmental Science (ARIES). ARIES would be a research consortium designed to elicit the participation of major research universities across the U.S. The primary objective of this research collaboration would be to investigate the impacts of coal mining and energy production on Appalachian communities. To support this goal, ARIES adopted a research paradigm that delivered objective, robust, and transparent results though the support of industry. This paradigm was composed of four core principles: 1. Independent research conducted at universities 2. Wide dissemination of results through peer-reviewed publications 3. Realistic timeframes for research and reporting 4. Applying sound scientific principles
Assessment of the Risks Associated with Thin Film Solar Panel Technology
Reynolds, William T. Jr.; Karmis, Michael E. (Virginia Tech. Virginia Center for Coal and Energy Research., 2019-03-08)
This report reviews the environmental risk profile of utility-scale cadmium telluride (CdTe) photovoltaic installations with relevant information from the scientific literature and an audit of the manufacturing and recycling facilities of a domestic manufacturer. Current photovoltaic technologies are described, and the environmental and health issues associated with CdTe are identified. Solubility measurements, bioavailability, acute aquatic toxicity, oral and inhalation toxicity, and mutagenicity studies all confirm CdTe has different physical, chemical, and toxicological properties than Cd. The CdTe compound is less leachable and less toxic than elemental Cd. The risks to the environment arising from broken solar panels during adverse events are considered by reviewing experimental results, theoretical worstcase modeling, and observational data from historical events. In each case considered, the potential negative health and safety impacts of utility-scale photovoltaic installations are low. The need for end-of-life management of solar panels is highlighted in the context of recycling to recover valuable and environmentally sensitive materials. Based upon the potential environmental health and safety impacts of CdTe photovoltaic installations across their life cycle, it is concluded they pose little to no risk under normal operating conditions and foreseeable accidents such as fire, breakage, and extreme weather events like tornadoes and hurricanes.
Assessment of Virginia Coalfield Region Capability to Support an Electric Power Generation Industry
Zipper, Carl E.; Henritze, Thomas K.; Randolph, John (Virginia Tech. Virginia Center for Coal and Energy Research., 1994-01)
This paper describes the results of research conducted to assess the capacity of the Virginia coalfields to support electric power generation facilities. The research also addressed potential economic impacts of power generation facilities.
B. Water Resources Management in Virginia and the Role of Localities
Randolph, John (Virginia Tech. College of Architecture and Urban Studies., 1991-03)
This report is one of ten volumes that make up the Sourcebook for Local Water Resources Management, which provides a wide range of information to assist localities in Virginia. The compendium was produced by a team from the College of Architecture and Urban Studies at Virginia Tech with a grant from the Virginia Environmental Endowment (VEE). The objective of the project is to help localities develop the means to respond to local water-related problems and to incorporate water resources information into land use and comprehensive planning.
The Clean Air Act Acid Rain Program: Implications for Virginia’s Coal Producers
Gilroy, Leonard; Zipper, Carl E. (Virginia Tech. Virginia Center for Coal and Energy Research., 1997-05)
The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 (CAAA90) established a national program to control sulfur dioxide (SO₂) air emissions that contribute to acid rain formation. The program takes a market-based approach that includes trading and banking of emissions allowances. We have analyzed data describing electric utility compliance strategies for 1995, the program's first year. Results show that fuel switching and flue-gas desulfurization were the dominant means used by affected plants to achieve compliance. Over three million allowance credits (tons of S0₂ emissions) were banked by affected utilities in 1995, as emissions by the 261 original Phase I-affected units totaled 4.4 million tons. Projection of current trends to the year 1999, the conclusion of Phase I, indicate that 14 to 15 million allowance credits will have been banked by utilities for use during the program's Phase II, which will require stricter controls beginning in the year 2000. Factors contributing to the accumulation of a sizable allowance bank include increased use of western coal, falling prices for eastern low-sulfur coal and desulfurization equipment, and a presumed desire by utility planners to minimize financial risks inherent in CAAA90's more-stringent Phase II requirements. Cumulative consumption of allowances during the first decade of Phase II is forecast by EPA at less than 10 million tons. The reduction of S0₂ emissions well beyond expectations, combined with falling prices for allowance credits, can be viewed as a success for market-based environmental controls. The implications for Virginia's low-sulfur coal producers, however, are more mixed. On one hand, the principal southeastern markets for low-sulfur Virginia coals have not experienced major inroads by low-sulfur western coal, or by installation of flue-gas desulfurization scrubbers that make high-sulfur coal purchases possible. On the other hand, central Appalachian coal price differentials based on sulfur contents have declined noticeably since initiation ofCAAA90 Phase I in early 1995, and prospects for improved 1 pricing oflow-sulfur coals appear poor. Under CAAA90, coal purchasers can link SO₂ emissions allowances with high-sulfur coals as a substitute for compliance-grade lowsulfur coals, such as those produced by many Virginia mines. Wide availability of allowance credits make it unlikely that Virginia coal producers will be able to increase the "price premiums" commanded by low-sulfur products any time soon. Scrubbers and lowprice western coal sales effectively remove low-sulfur Appalachian producers from consideration as coal suppliers at a number of midwestern generating units, which has the effect of intensifying competition in the southeast. Electric utilities in states that are major purchasers of Virginia coal have been among the heaviest purchasers of allowances in the open markets.
Coal Mining Outlook: International, National, and Virginia Trends
Karmis, Michael E.; McDowney, Preston; Ripepi, Nino; Schafrik, Steven J.; Weisiger, Sean; Walton, Daniel; Kostic, Dennis (Virginia Tech. Virginia Center for Coal and Energy Research., 2000-11)
Coal mining serves an important role as the economic catalyst for Southwest Virginia, providing high paying jobs in an area crippled by unemployment. There are numerous support industries in existence only because of coal mining. The ripple effects of mining are experienced throughout the state. Every ton of coal mined in Virginia contributes $27.11 to Virginia's economy, while every dollar paid to a miner has a $4.64 impact on Virginia's economy. The tax credit has had a pronounced effect on coal production in Virginia. After the tax credit was enacted, the declining trend in coal production has slowed down, and the production levels are higher than projected. As a result of these higher production levels, an additional $394 million in total impact has been generated, millions in severance and income taxes have been produced, and numerous coal mining jobs have been preserved.
Cogeneration/IPP Development in the Virginia Coalfields: Coal and Natural Gas Availability
Randolph, John; Zipper, Carl E.; Hensley, Michael (Virginia Tech. Virginia Center for Coal and Energy Research., 1990-05)
This study attempts to quantify the potential for cogeneration and independent power production (IPP) development based on local ruel availability in the Virginia coalfields. An estimate of available fuel is determined from interviews with a sample of the region's largest coal and natural gas producers. They were asked specifically what quantity of coal or gas they would be willing to provide under long-term contract to such local facilities. Certain assumptions on price and fuel quality were prnvided. The study demonstrates that, given the right price conditions, substantial coal supplies could be available to such a local cogeneration/lPP market. Surveyed producers indicated about 4.5 million tons per year might be available. These producers represent 82 percent of Virginia's coal production. The major factors arfecting their willingness to provide this coal include: (1) the desirability of long-term contracts; (2) the flexible coal quality specifications such plants would accept; and (3) the dedicated, local market that would help secure them from the uncertainty of distant markets and rail transport costs.
Economic Impacts of Virginiais Natural Gas Industries
Zipper, Carl E.; Gilroy, Leonard (Virginia Tech. Virginia Center for Coal and Energy Research., 1995-09)
This study estimates the contributions of the natural gas industries to Virginia's economy. Activities covered by this study include the production of natural gas and associated products from wells in southwestern Virginia, gas transportation, and the distribution of natural gas to consumers throughout Virginia. The economic impacts of Virginia's natural gas industries considered by this study include direct, indirect, and induced effects. Direct effects include employment, payroll expenditures, and state and local tax expenditures by Virginia's natural gas industries; baseline data from published sources and an industry survey were used to estimate direct effects. A measure of direct effects, however, does not capture the full extent of the gas industries' economic impact A portion of the revenues received by these industries is spent in Virginia communities to pun:hase goods and services. In addition, wages and salaries received by natural gas industry employees, and by employees of supporting industries, support economic activity within the state. The business activities supported by industry and employee expenditures are called indirect and induced effects. Economic multipliers were applied to baseline data to estimate the indirect and induced economic effects resulting from the production, transportation, and distribution of natural gas in Virginia. In 1993, Virginia's natural gas industries employed over 3,000 people who earned more than $140 million in wages and salaries. In addition, over $80 million of industry revenues supported state and local governments as taxes and other payments. However, the industries' total economic impacts went well beyond these figures. Total in-state economic impacts of Virginia's natural gas industries - including direct, indirect and induced effects - during 1993 are estimated at over $1.5 billion in total economic activity, 12,000 jobs, and $350 million in payroll income.
Effects of Virginia Coalfield Employment Enhancement Tax Credit Legislation
Zipper, Carl E.; Kambhampaty, S. Murthy (Virginia Tech. Virginia Center for Coal and Energy Research., 1996-03)
Coal mining is the major industry in Virginia's far southwestern counties. Coal transportation supports employment in other parts of the state. In 1995, the Virginia General Assembly passed, and the Governor signed, legislation establishing the Virginia Coalfield Employment Enhancement Tax Credit. This tax credit applies to coal produced from mines located within the state's borders. The tax credit is intended as a means of maintaining coal-related employment in the coalfield counties and other parts of the state. The Virginia Coal and Energy Commission is considering proposals that would modify the current tax credit. The current legislation establishes a production tax credit of $0.25 per ton for surface-mined coal, $0.60 for coal produced in deep mines with seam thicknesses under 33 inches, and $0.50 per ton for other deep-mined coal. The current tax credit will be available to coal producers with a three-year delay, and only if the state runs a revenue surplus which exceeds projections during the intervening fiscal year. The Coal and Energy Commission has voted to recommend removal of the revenue surplus contingency and three year-delay provisions from the current legislation. This report contains results of a study of the Coalfield Employment Enhancement Tax Credit's effect on export coal businesses at the Port of Hampton Roads. The study addresses this topic within the context of the tax credit's effect on the state as a whole. The study also addresses the effects of alternative tax credits under consideration by the Coal and Energy Commission.
Evaluation of the Virginia Weatherization Program
Randolph, John; Greely, Katherine M.; Hill, William H. (Virginia Tech. Virginia Center for Coal and Energy Research., 1991-11)
Since its inception in 1975, the Virginia Weatherization Program has installed energy conservation measures in more than 60,000 low-income housing units. The program has been administered by the Virginia Department of Social Services (VDSS)1 with funds provided by the federal Weatherization Assistance Program in the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and supplemented in recent years by state "oil overcharge" funds. Under contract to VOSS, the program is operated by the Virginia Association of Community Action Agencies, Inc. (VACAA), which issues subcontracts to local community action and other agencies (so-called "subgrantees") to implement the program at the local level. VACAA oversees local implementation by establishing installation standards for the energy conservation measures and procedures to be applied, inspecting and monitoring houses completed, and reimbursing local agencies for job completions based on the cost of materials put into the houses. For many years, VACAA based its installation standards on "Project Retro-Tech", a priority system developed by DOE. Recent advances in weatherization in other states convinced VACAA staff that some of the measures in Virginia's standards may not be as effective as other new measures. In 1988, VACAA began making changes to their standards to reflects some of these advances. However, the agency soon realized that a full evaluation of the program would be necessary to see how these new measures fit Virginia's climate, housing stock, and local weatherization capabilities, and how much they could improve the effectiveness of the program. In June 1989, the Virginia Association of Community Action Agencies, Inc. (VACAA) contracted the Virginia Center for Coal and Energy Research (VCCER) to conduct an evaluation of the Virginia Weatherization Program. The study ran through December 1990. The main objective of the evaluation was to improve the energy savings and cost-effectiveness of the program by developing a new protocol of energy conservation measures and recommending improvements in administrative procedures. This final report of the study describes the project and its principal findings and recommendations. The project was conducted by VCCER's John Randolph and Kathy Greely with assistance from Bill Hill (Center for Energy Research, Education Service at Ball State University) and Larry Kinney (Synertech Systems Corp.). Special training of Virginia weatherization crews for purposes of the study was conducted by R.W. Davis and Rudy Leatherman (Corporation for Ohio Appalachian Development), Rana Belshe and Tom Wilson (Residential Energy Conservation Consulting Group (RECCG), and Jim Fitzgerald. In addition to the final report, a Training and Technical Assistance Manual for Virginia Weatherization produced by COAD, RECCG, and Larry Kinney, was a product of the evaluation project.
An Examination of Policies to Promote Greater Use of Wood Processing Industry Wastes for Fuel in State Facilities
Zipper, Carl E.; Muench, John (Virginia Tech. Virginia Center for Coal and Energy Research., 1993)
The 1992 House Joint Resolution 69 directed the Virginia Coal and Energy Commission, with the assistance of the Virginia Center for Coal and Energy Research (VCCER) and the Brooks Forest Products Center (BFPC), to "examine policies necessary to promote greater use of wood wastes for fuels by state facilities." This report contains the results of investigations conducted by VCCER and BFPC at the request of the Virginia Coal and Energy Commission to achieve the objectives of House Joint Resolution 69.
Field Laboratory for Emerging Stacked Unconventional Plays (ESUP) in Central Appalachia: Highlights from Research Performance Progress Report 1-2
(Virginia Tech, 2018)
This summary report outlines accomplishments and activities for the ESUP (Emerging Stacked Unconventional Plays) project for the period of April 1, 2018 - September 1, 2018. The goal of ESUP is to investigate and characterize the resource potential for multi-play production of emerging unconventional gas reservoirs in Central Appalachia.
Field Laboratory for Emerging Stacked Unconventional Plays (ESUP) in Central Appalachia: Highlights from Research Performance Progress Report 3
(Virginia Tech, 2018)
This summary report outlines accomplishments and activities for the ESUP (Emerging Stacked Unconventional Plays) project for the period of October 1, 2018 - December 31, 2018. The goal of ESUP is to investigate and characterize the resource potential for multi-play production of emerging unconventional gas reservoirs in Central Appalachia.
Field Laboratory for Emerging Stacked Unconventional Plays (ESUP): Project No. DE-FE0031576
Ripepi, Nino; Karmis, Michael E.; Chen, Cheng; Gilliland, Ellen; Nojabaei, Bahareh (Virginia Tech, 2018-08-24)
The objective for this project is to investigate and characterize the resource potential for multi-play production of emerging unconventional reservoirs in Central Appalachia. The project team includes Virginia Tech; Virginia Center for Coal & Energy Research; Enervest Operating, LCC; Pashin Geoscience, LLC; and Gerald R. Hill, PhD, Inc. The anticipated duration of the project is April 1, 2018 - March 31, 2023.
High-Extraction Mining, Subsidence, and Virginia’s Water Resources
Roth, Richard A.; Randolph, John; Zipper, Carl E. (Virginia Tech. Virginia Center for Coal and Energy Research., 1990-05)
The Virginia Center for Coal and Energy Research was established in 1977 as an "interdisciplinary study, research, inrormation and resource facility for the Commonwealth. As a public service research organization, the Center's mission is to research and provide information on coal and energy issues or public interest. It was with this mission in mind that we initiated this project to explore the technical, regulatory, and legal issues concerning mine subsidence and water resources in Virginia. Because of the sensitive nature or this subject to the coal industry, citizens' and environmental groups, and state agencies and policy makers, we have undertaken a deliberate and lengthy process of research, draft reports, and circulation for review and comment. The research was initiated in May 1988. The original draft was prepared in May 1989 and circulated lo state agency representatives and coal companies. Extensive comments were received over the next several months and a second rewritten draft was circulated for wider review in October 1989. Once again, lengthy comments were received, prompting further research which was incorporated into this final report. It has been our intent in this study to provide the most balanced review possible of a most complex and sensitive subject. We sincerely hope that we have achieved that objective and that this report will contribute to further discussions and research on mine subsidence and water resources in Virginia.
In-state Economic Impacts of the Virginia Coal Industry and Potential Coal Production Declines
Zipper, Carl E. (Virginia Tech. Virginia Center for Coal and Energy Research., 1995-05)
Production and transportation of coal make a significant contribution to the Virginia economy. Several recent reports, however, indicate that Virginia coal production appears vulnerable to substantial decline in the near future (Milici and Campbell, 1991; Energy Ventures Analysis, 1994; Crabtree, 1995). This report provides an estimate of the in-state economic impacts of the Virginia coal-mining industry during the year 1993. This analysis also addresses the potential economic impacts of declining coal production. This analysis was conducted prior to the April, 1995, enactment of coal tax credit legislation by the Commonwealth of Virginia; neither the effects of that legislation, nor those Virginia tax credits available to coal purchasers in effect prior to that legislation, are considered in this analysis. Virginia coal production in 1994 (38.8 million tons, according to Virginia DMME) was over 16.5 percent below peak 1990's production levels. Virginia Employment Commission data show that coal-industry employment declined by well over 2,000 jobs (approximately 20 percent) between 1990 and 1993. Preliminary data from the Virginia Department of Mines, Minerals, and Energy indicate that, during 1994, approximately 830 additional coal-mining jobs have been lost. The impact of declining coal-mine employment has been especially severe in southwestern Virginia's coal-producing countries. In 1994, five of southwestern Virginia's seven coal-producing counties had unemployment rates which were among the state's top eight, out of 136 jurisdictions statewide (Figure 1). Two of the major coal-producing counties ranked first and second for having the state's highest unemployment rates: 16.2% in Dickenson County and 15% in Buchanan County. The state average for 1994 was 4.9%.
Meeting Coal Production Demands in the USA: Upstream issues, challenges, and strategies
Gluskoter, Harold J.; Karmis, Michael E.; Luttrell, Gerald H.; Ramani, Raja V.; Vance, George F. (Virginia Tech. Virginia Center for Coal and Energy Research., 2008-12)
The National Commission on Energy Policy (NCEP) commissioned this report to review and identify critical “upstream” fuel cycle issues that need to be addressed to ensure that the domestic coal industry can continue meeting the nation’s energy demands while delivering the social benefits and environmental performance demanded by the public. The central focus of the study was to address matters important to ensuring a coal production system consistent with the nation’s long-term energy and environmental goals and objectives through 2030.
Micrometer-scale Experimental Characterization of the Lower Huron Shale in the Central Appalachian Basin
Tan, Xinyu; Gilliland, Ellen; Tang, Xu; Fan, Ming; Ripepi, Nino (American Geophysical Union, 2020)
The mechanical properties of shale play an important role in hydraulic fracturing design. Although the popular nanoindentation method can be performed to evaluate some mechanical characteristics of organic matter, it is still difficult to fully characterize mechanical properties of organic components of shale due to their small scale which is usually on the order of micrometers or even nanometers. As a novel material characterization tool, Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) has shown great potential to characterize surface properties and pore structures at micrometer- and nanometer-scale and has been applied to investigate the elastic properties of organic components in shale by multiple researchers. Raman and FTIR can detect chemical bands by utilizing molecular vibration information. Because Raman and FTIR measurements are non-destructive, high sensitivity, and short in duration, they have been used extensively to study maturation processes of organic components in coal and shale samples. To some extent, these two methods can be considered as complementary to each other, and more comprehensive understanding about maturation processes of organic components can be achieved by combining these two methods. In this work, mechanical properties and chemical characteristics of four shale samples with different thermal maturities were investigated. Generally, this study had two objectives: (1) Characterize the mechanical properties of shale samples with different maturity levels through the novel AFM method, and (2) Explore the underlying cause for the change in elastic properties of shale samples from a chemical perspective through the complementary Raman and FTIR methods.

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