US Foreign Policy Towards National Movements: Impact of Joint Combat Operations, Affective Trust, and Identity

This study explores US foreign policy toward national movements (NMs), focusing on Kurdish groups across all parts of Kurdistan: Syria, Iraq, Iran, and Turkey. It investigates the central question of why the US views certain Kurdish NMs as strategic allies while labeling others as terrorists. The PKK and PYD—sister organizations sharing the same ideology and leader—serve as a prime example of this inconsistency: the PKK is designated a terrorist organization, while the PYD has emerged as a key US partner. Similarly, Iraq's Kurdish ruling parties were initially placed on the third-tier terrorist list, only to later become Washington's most reliable allies in Iraq. The study reveals that this discrepancy is mainly due to the impact of joint combat operations. Driven by US strategic interests, these operations strengthen ties with NMs partners. Positive joint operations, free of insider attacks, are instrumental in building rational trust that evolves into affective trust over time. This trust elevates them to in-group status, fostering a shared identity. The affective bonds forged during these combat experiences shape policy makers' perceptions, further reinforcing these relationships. Furthermore, diplomatic engagements in the post-combat phase complement this process, deepening trust and enabling the US and NMs to address challenges collaboratively while advancing broader strategic objectives.