The Precarious Man: Measuring masculine discrepancy and its relationships with aggression and misogyny
| dc.contributor.author | Aadahl, Sarah | en |
| dc.contributor.committeechair | Reichelmann, Ashley Veronica | en |
| dc.contributor.committeemember | Hawdon, James E. | en |
| dc.contributor.committeemember | Dearden, Thomas | en |
| dc.contributor.committeemember | Parti, Katalin | en |
| dc.contributor.department | Sociology | en |
| dc.date.accessioned | 2024-12-18T09:00:34Z | en |
| dc.date.available | 2024-12-18T09:00:34Z | en |
| dc.date.issued | 2024-12-17 | en |
| dc.description.abstract | In the studies of men and masculinity, most of the focus has been on masculine dysfunction strain, or the strain males feel as it relates to the various expectations of masculinity. In contrast, the research on discrepancy strain (or the strain males feel when they fail to meet these expectations) is limited. Unlike dysfunction strain, there are not any widely accepted and utilized scales measuring discrepancy. By combining identity theory and general strain theory with gender and feminist theory, my goal is to examine how masculine discrepancy may be related to the endorsement of aggression and misogyny. The aim of this dissertation is to develop and validate a scale to operationalize masculine discrepancy as it is theorized; this scale will then be used to examine the following research questions: does masculine discrepancy impact males' individual endorsement of aggression and misogyny? And if so, are these impacts moderated by failure to meet particular aspects, or "pillars," of masculinity? I created a masculine discrepancy scale that more accurately operationalizes the theoretical concept of masculine discrepancy. First, I synthesized various masculinity scales, namely the Male Role Norms Inventory, the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory, and the Man Box scale to develop assessments of males' masculine ideals ("ideal") and perceptions of their lived experiences ("actual" or "experiences"). By comparing ideal to actual, we can calculate a discrepancy score, where a score of 0 indicates consistency, and scores further from 0 indicate discrepancy. These scores are calculated both as an overall assessment of discrepancy and by particular pillars of masculinity. Following a pilot study of undergraduate sociology students, 1,000 males above the age of 18 were surveyed. These surveys were conducted via Cint panel distribution in December 2023. I then use factor and cluster analysis as well as regression analyses to test the following hypotheses: (1) Masculine Discrepancy Stress will have a positive relationship with aggression and misogyny. (2) Higher endorsement of masculine ideals and lived experiences will be associated with higher levels of endorsement of aggression and misogyny when compared to lower endorsement of ideals and experiences. (3) Masculine Discrepancy, or the difference between idealized and lived masculine experiences, will be negatively correlated with aggression and misogyny. Individuals with positive discrepancies (lived experiences surpassing their masculine ideals) will exhibit lower levels of aggression and misogyny compared to those with negative discrepancies (masculine ideals surpassing lived experiences). (4) Certain masculine ideals and experiences will have stronger associations with aggression and misogyny than others. (5) Cluster analysis of ideals and experiences will reveal four groups of males: Norm-Favoring Consistents: High ideals, high experiences; Norm-Favoring Discrepants: High ideals, low experiences; Norm-Rejecting Consistents: Low ideals, low experiences; Norm-Rejecting Discrepants: Low ideals, high experiences. (6) These clusters will differ in their endorsement of aggression and misogyny. The Norm-Favoring Discrepants will exhibit the highest levels of aggression and misogyny, followed by the Norm-Favoring Consistents. The Norm-Rejecting Consistents will have lower levels than both of the Norm-Favoring groups, and the Norm-Rejecting Discrepants will have the lowest endorsement of aggression and misogyny. Hypotheses 1 through 4 were supported, while hypotheses 5 and 6 had limited support, as the two "Consistent" groups did not clearly differ as "norm-favoring" vs. "norm-rejecting." | en |
| dc.description.abstractgeneral | We currently live in an age where masculinity is the topic of much conversation. To one side, we have talking heads and political pundits decrying what they call "attacks on masculinity" or "attacks on men," and include suggestions like reading self-help books comparing humans to lobsters and tanning your testicles to regain lost masculinity. To the other side, we have self-professed "kings of toxic masculinity" who charge $8,000/year for a "PhD course" (the PhD standing for "Pimpin' Hoes Degree") being arrested for rape and human trafficking. Psychologists have found that having traditional masculine beliefs is associated with sexually aggressive and abusive behaviors and beliefs, coercion, dating violence, hostile sexism, hostility toward women, and self-reported violence and aggression. However, little research has been conducted on the outcomes men face when they fail to meet their own expectations of what they consider necessary to be "real men," perhaps partially due to the fact that there is no widely used scale measuring this concept of masculine discrepancy. In my dissertation, I create this type of scale in order to ask the question: when men fail to meet their own expectations concerning what it means to be a "real man," will they have higher rates of aggression and misogyny? And does it matter if men fail to meet one "pillar" of expectation (ex. being a playboy) compared to another "pillar" of expectation (ex. being in control of their emotions)? I explore this question by surveying 1,000 men about their views on what it means to be a "real man," and their actual experiences as it relates to "being a real man." I then run several statistical analyses to test my hypotheses regarding the amount of discrepancy and its relationship to the endorsement of aggression and misogyny. I find that the more a man worries about being seen as "manly," the more likely he is to endorse aggression and misogyny. Similarly, in many cases, the more a man endorses traditional masculine ideals and corresponding experiences, the more likely he is to endorse certain forms of aggression and misogyny. Additionally, I find that men who fail to live up to their own ideals in certain cases have higher endorsement of aggression and misogyny, while men whose experiences surpass their ideals have lower endorsement of aggression and misogyny. When creating groups of men based on discrepancy scores, I find that the group of men who failed to meet their ideals always, on average, had the highest endorsement of aggression and misogyny, while the group of men whose experiences were higher than their ideals also, on average, had the lowest endorsement of aggression and misogyny. One unexpected finding is that men seem to be rejecting the idea that men cannot express emotions or ask for help; I discuss the implications of this finding. | en |
| dc.description.degree | Doctor of Philosophy | en |
| dc.format.medium | ETD | en |
| dc.identifier.other | vt_gsexam:41637 | en |
| dc.identifier.uri | https://hdl.handle.net/10919/123832 | en |
| dc.language.iso | en | en |
| dc.publisher | Virginia Tech | en |
| dc.rights | In Copyright | en |
| dc.rights.uri | http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/ | en |
| dc.subject | Masculinity | en |
| dc.subject | aggression | en |
| dc.subject | misogyny | en |
| dc.subject | masculine ideals | en |
| dc.subject | masculine discrepancy | en |
| dc.title | The Precarious Man: Measuring masculine discrepancy and its relationships with aggression and misogyny | en |
| dc.type | Dissertation | en |
| thesis.degree.discipline | Sociology | en |
| thesis.degree.grantor | Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University | en |
| thesis.degree.level | doctoral | en |
| thesis.degree.name | Doctor of Philosophy | en |
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