Scholarly Works, Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station

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https://hdl.handle.net/10919/24309

VAES faculty are located at 11 Agricultural Research and Extension Centers in Virginia and three colleges at Virginia Tech (CALS, CNRE, and VMRCVM).

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2020 Spray Bulletin for Commercial Tree Fruit Growers: Virginia, West Virginia, and University of Maryland
Pfeiffer, Douglas G.; Bergh, J. Christopher; Wilson, James; Hooks, C. R. R.; Sherif, Sherif M.; Walsh, C. S.; Yoder, Keith S.; Rahman, Mahfaz; Kotcon, J. B.; Derr, Jeffrey F.; Chandran, Rakesh S.; Frank, Daniel L.; Wycoff, Stephanie B.; Brown, Amy; Parkhurst, James A. (2020)
Integrated pest management (IPM) is the approach emphasized in this guide; some aspects of IPM are incorporated throughout, although this guide mainly deals with the chemical component of IPM. IPM combines biological control from predators with selective chemical application for maintaining pest populations below economic threshold levels. This approach requires that growers give careful consideration to the selection, application rate and timing of chemical sprays. The degree of integration achieved will vary according to the management ability, training and objectives of the orchardist. Inadequate monitoring or implementation of IPM practices will lead to unsatisfactory results. In order to encourage the biological control components of the program, growers must consider the toxicity of chemicals to predators (Table 9, page 59) in addition to their efficacy against fruit pests (Tables 7 and 8, pages 56-58)...
2022 Sentinel Vineyards "State of the Grape in the State" Report 2
Acimovic, Dana; Chang, Elizabeth A. B.; Nita, Mizuho; Hatch, Tremain (2022-02-09)
- Vineyard update - Disease update - Fruit chemistry update - Novel Varieties project: basic fruit chemistry
Aerial high-throughput phenotyping of peanut leaf area index and lateral growth
Sarkar, Sayantan; Cazenave, Alexandre-Brice; Oakes, Joseph C.; McCall, David S.; Thomason, Wade E.; Abbott, A. Lynn; Balota, Maria (Springer Nature, 2021-11-04)
Leaf area index (LAI) is the ratio of the total one-sided leaf area to the ground area, whereas lateral growth (LG) is the measure of canopy expansion. They are indicators for light capture, plant growth, and yield. Although LAI and LG can be directly measured, this is time consuming. Healthy leaves absorb in the blue and red, and reflect in the green regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Aerial high-throughput phenotyping (HTP) may enable rapid acquisition of LAI and LG from leaf reflectance in these regions. In this paper, we report novel models to estimate peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) LAI and LG from vegetation indices (VIs) derived relatively fast and inexpensively from the red, green, and blue (RGB) leaf reflectance collected with an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). In addition, we evaluate the models’ suitability to identify phenotypic variation for LAI and LG and predict pod yield from early season estimated LAI and LG. The study included 18 peanut genotypes for model training in 2017, and 8 genotypes for model validation in 2019. The VIs included the blue green index (BGI), red-green ratio (RGR), normalized plant pigment ratio (NPPR), normalized green red difference index (NGRDI), normalized chlorophyll pigment index (NCPI), and plant pigment ratio (PPR). The models used multiple linear and artificial neural network (ANN) regression, and their predictive accuracy ranged from 84 to 97%, depending on the VIs combinations used in the models. The results concluded that the new models were time- and cost-effective for estimation of LAI and LG, and accessible for use in phenotypic selection of peanuts with desirable LAI, LG and pod yield.
Age related differences in phylogenetic diversity, prevalence of Shiga toxins, Intimin, Hemolysin genes and select serogroups of Escherichia coli from pastured meat goats detected in a longitudinal cohort study
Ndegwa, Eunice; Alahmde, Aber; Kim, Chyer; Kaseloo, Paul; O'Brien, Dahlia (BMC, 2020-07-30)
Background: Little is known on significance, diversity and characteristics of gut E. coli in goats despite their importance as food animals globally. We characterized the temporal dynamics in diversity of E. coli in fecal samples from a cohort of goat kids and adult meat goats on pasture over a one-year period. Isolates were characterized based on phylogenetic grouping, virulence genes; shiga toxins 1 and 2 (Stx1&Stx2) (STEC), intimin (eaeA), hemolysin (hly) and select important sero-groups (026, 045, 0103, 0126 and 0146) using molecular methods. Results: A total of 516 E. coli isolates were screened. Prevalence of virulence genes and STEC was 65 and 56% respectively. Prevalence of virulence genes and STEC was significantly higher in goat kids less than six months (76% /66%) than adults (48% /28%). Isolates with virulence profiles of two or more genes were also higher in young goat kids (50%) than adults (20%). Entero-pathogenic E. coli (EPEC-eaeA gene only) were mostly from pre-weaned goat kids while hly gene only isolates were significantly higher in adults. The stx1, stx2 and hly genes peaked around weaning (60, 63 and 52%) respectively. Goats kids were mostly hosts to group D (59%) while adults older than one year had B1 (75%) isolates. Group D isolates were most abundant at weaning (64%) and diarrhea samples (74%). Group B2 isolates overall (6%) were mostly detected around weaning (63%) while A isolates were 4% overall. Twenty-four isolates belonged to sero-groups 026, 0103 and 0146 with 70% of the isolates detected around weaning. Nineteen of these isolates were STEC with most harboring the stx1/stx2/hly/eae (25%) profile. Most belonged to O26 sero-group (75%) and phylogroup D (75%). Conclusion: To our knowledge this is the first study to highlight longitudinal age related differences in E. coli phylogenetic diversity, abundance of virulence genes and select important sero-groups in goats. Differences detected suggest a possible role of age and weaning stress in influencing E. coli diversity in the gut of goats. The findings are relevant to both animal and public health to advise on further studies on caprine E. coli isolates as animal and human pathogens.
Agricultural Practices Influence Salmonella Contamination and Survival in Pre-harvest Tomato Production
Gu, Ganyu; Strawn, Laura K.; Oryang, David O.; Zheng, Jie; Reed, Elizabeth A.; Ottesen, Andrea R.; Bell, Rebecca L.; Chen, Yuhuan; Duret, Steven; Ingram, David T.; Reiter, Mark S.; Pfuntner, Rachel; Brown, Eric W.; Rideout, Steven L. (Frontiers, 2018-10-16)
Between 2000 and 2010 the Eastern Shore of Virginia was implicated in four Salmonella outbreaks associated with tomato. Therefore, a multi-year study (2012-2015) was performed to investigate presumptive factors associated with the contamination of Salmonella within tomato fields at Virginia Tech's Eastern Shore Agricultural Research and Extension Center. Factors including irrigation water sources (pond and well), type of soil amendment: fresh poultry litter (PL), PL ash, and a conventional fertilizer (triple superphosphate - TSP), and production practices: staked with plastic mulch (SP), staked without plastic mulch (SW), and non-staked without plastic mulch (NW), were evaluated by split-plot or complete-block design. All field experiments relied on naturally occurring Salmonella contamination, except one follow up experiment (worst-case scenario) which examined the potential for contamination in tomato fruits when Salmonella was applied through drip irrigation. Samples were collected from pond and well water; PL, PL ash, and TSP; and the rhizosphere, leaves, and fruits of tomato plants. Salmonella was quantified using a most probable number method and contamination ratios were calculated for each treatment. Salmonella serovar was determined by molecular serotyping. Salmonella populations varied significantly by year; however, similar trends were evident each year. Findings showed use of untreated pond water and raw PL amendment increased the likelihood of Salmonella detection in tomato plots. Salmonella Newport and Typhimurium were the most frequently detected serovars in pond water and PL amendment samples, respectively. Interestingly, while these factors increased the likelihood of Salmonella detection in tomato plots (rhizosphere and leaves), all tomato fruits sampled (n = 4800) from these plots were Salmonella negative. Contamination of tomato fruits was extremely low (< 1%) even when tomato plots were artificially inoculated with an attenuated Salmonella Newport strain (10(4) CFU/mL). Furthermore, Salmonella was not detected in tomato plots irrigated using well water and amended with PL ash or TSP. Production practices also influenced the likelihood of Salmonella detection in tomato plots. Salmonella detection was higher in tomato leaf samples for NW plots, compared to SP and SW plots. This study provides evidence that attention to agricultural inputs and production practices may help reduce the likelihood of Salmonella contamination in tomato fields.
Analyzing the structural shifts in U.S. boxwood production due to boxwood blight
Hall, Charles R.; Hong, Chuanxue; Gouker, Fred E.; Daughtrey, Margery (Horticultural Research Institute, 2021-09-01)
The purpose of this study is to examine the changes in the sales of boxwood (Buxus spp.) that have occurred in boxwood production states. We theorize that some of the shifts in production areas over the period from 2009 to 2019 have been impacted by the introduction of boxwood blight into the United States. Boxwood blight (Calonectria pseudonaviculata) was first observed in the U.S. in 2011 by plant pathologists in 8 states: Connecticut, Maryland, Massachusetts, New York, North Carolina, Oregon, Rhode Island, and Virginia. The disease has now been seen in 30 states plus the District of Columbia. The data used for this analysis is from the Census of Horticultural Specialties (CHS), a survey administered by the United States Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Statistics Service (USDA-NASS) every five years. The findings from this analysis of the Census of Horticultural Specialties data from 2009 to 2019 indicate that there were already shifts occurring in boxwood markets prior to the introduction of boxwood blight. However, boxwood blight has exacerbated the supply chain challenges for green industry participants by limiting production in certain areas of the country, increasing the costs of producing boxwood compared to other evergreen shrubs, and perhaps dampening the demand from what might have been without the existence of the blight.
Antimicrobial Resistance in E. coli Isolated from Residential Water Wells in South Central Virginia
Kim, C.; Fulke, M.; Taghavi, T.; Asmare, A.; Kaseloo, P.; Ndegwa, E.; Sismour, E. (2018-01-25)
Antimicrobial Resistance, Virulence Properties and Genetic Diversity of Salmonella Typhimurium Recovered from Domestic and Imported Seafood
Elbashir, Salah M.; Adnan, Adib M.; Bowers, John; DePaola, Angelo; Jahncke, Michael; Punchihewage-Don, Anuradha J.; Da Silva, Ligia V.; Hashem, Fawzy; Parveen, Salina (MDPI, 2023-06-30)
The quantity of seafood imported and produced by domestic aquaculture farming has increased. Recently, it has been reported that multidrug-resistant (MDR) Salmonella Typhimurium may be associated with seafood. However, information is limited to the antimicrobial resistance, virulence properties, and genetic diversity of S. Typhimurium recovered from imported and domestic seafood. This study investigated the antimicrobial resistance, virulence properties, and genetic diversity of S. Typhimurium isolated from domestic and imported catfish, shrimp, and tilapia. A total of 127 isolates were tested for the presence of multidrug-resistance (MDR), virulence genes (invA, pagC, spvC, spvR), and genetic diversity using the Sensititre micro-broth dilution method, PCR, and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), respectively. All isolates were uniformly susceptible to six (amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, ceftiofur, ceftriaxone, imipenem, nitrofurantoin, and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole) of the 17 tested antimicrobials and genetically diverse. Fifty-three percent of the Salmonella isolates were resistant to at least one antimicrobial and 49% were multidrug resistant. Ninety-five percent of the isolates possessed the invA gene, 67% pagC, and 43% for both spvC, and spvR. The results suggest that S. Typhimurium recovered from seafood is frequently MDR, virulent, and have the ability to cause salmonellosis.
Apple miRNAs and tasiRNAs with novel regulatory networks
Xia, Rui; Zhu, Hong; An, Yong-qiang; Beers, Eric P.; Liu, Zongrang (2012-06-15)
Background MicroRNAs (miRNAs) and their regulatory functions have been extensively characterized in model species but whether apple has evolved similar or unique regulatory features remains unknown. Results We performed deep small RNA-seq and identified 23 conserved, 10 less-conserved and 42 apple-specific miRNAs or families with distinct expression patterns. The identified miRNAs target 118 genes representing a wide range of enzymatic and regulatory activities. Apple also conserves two TAS gene families with similar but unique trans-acting small interfering RNA (tasiRNA) biogenesis profiles and target specificities. Importantly, we found that miR159, miR828 and miR858 can collectively target up to 81 MYB genes potentially involved in diverse aspects of plant growth and development. These miRNA target sites are differentially conserved among MYBs, which is largely influenced by the location and conservation of the encoded amino acid residues in MYB factors. Finally, we found that 10 of the 19 miR828-targeted MYBs undergo small interfering RNA (siRNA) biogenesis at the 3' cleaved, highly divergent transcript regions, generating over 100 sequence-distinct siRNAs that potentially target over 70 diverse genes as confirmed by degradome analysis. Conclusions Our work identified and characterized apple miRNAs, their expression patterns, targets and regulatory functions. We also discovered that three miRNAs and the ensuing siRNAs exploit both conserved and divergent sequence features of MYB genes to initiate distinct regulatory networks targeting a multitude of genes inside and outside the MYB family.
Application of Exogenous dsRNAs-induced RNAi in Agriculture: Challenges and Triumphs
Das, Protiva Rani; Sherif, Sherif M. (Frontiers, 2020-06-25)
In recent years, RNA interference (RNAi) machinery has widely been explored by plant biologists for its potential applications in disease management, plant development, and germplasm improvement. RNAi-based technologies have mainly been applied in the form of transgenic plant generation and host-induced-gene-silencing (HIGS). However, the approval of RNAi-based transgenic plants has always been challenging due to the proclaimed concerns surrounding their impacts on human health and the environment. Lately, exogenous applications of double-stranded RNAs (dsRNAs), short interfering RNAs (siRNAs), and hairpin RNAs (hpRNAs) has emerged as another technology that could be regarded as more eco-friendly, sustainable, and publicly acceptable than genetic transformation. Inside the plant cell, dsRNAs can undergo several steps of processing, which not only triggers RNAi machinery but may also involve transitive and systemic silencing, as well as epigenetic modifications. Therefore, along with the considerations of proper exogenous applications of dsRNAs, defining their final destination into plant cells is highly relevant. In this review, we highlighted the significance of several factors that affect dsRNA-induced gene silencing, the fate of exogenous dsRNAs in the plant cell, and the challenges surrounding production technologies, cost-effectiveness, and dsRNAs stability under open-field conditions. This review also provided insights into the potential applications of exogenous dsRNAs in plant protection and crop improvement.
Applications of High-Resolution Imaging for Open Field Container Nursery Counting
She, Ying; Ehsani, Reza; Robbins, James; Nahún Leiva, Josué; Owen, James S. Jr. (MDPI, 2018-12-12)
Frequent inventory data of container nurseries is needed by growers to ensure proper management and marketing strategies. In this paper, inventory data are estimated from aerial images. Since there are thousands of nursery species, it is difficult to find a generic classification algorithm for all cases. In this paper, the development of classification methods was confined to three representative categories: green foliage, yellow foliage, and flowering plants. Vegetation index thresholding and the support vector machine (SVM) were used for classification. Classification accuracies greater than 97% were obtained for each case. Based on the classification results, an algorithm based on canopy area mapping was built for counting. The effects of flight altitude, container spacing, and ground cover type were evaluated. Results showed that container spacing and interaction of container spacing with ground cover type have a significant effect on counting accuracy. To mimic the practical shipping and moving process, incomplete blocks with different voids were created. Results showed that the more plants removed from the block, the higher the accuracy. The developed algorithm was tested on irregular- or regular-shaped plants and plants with and without flowers to test the stability of the algorithm, and accuracies greater than 94% were obtained.
Assessing consumer perceptions, attitudes, knowledge and barriers towards consumption of captured and cultured seafood in Virginia and Maryland
Villalba, Abigail; van Senten, Jonathan; Haugen, Inga; Liu, Catherine; Cole, Austin (2020-03-05)
Assessing Economic Contributions of the Virginia Seafood Industry: An Estimation Framework Utilizing Primary Data
Gonçalves, Fernando H.; van Senten, Jonathan; Schwarz, Michael H.; Hegde, Shraddha (MDPI, 2024-05-26)
With a focus on seafood industries, this study provides a framework for economic contribution assessments, outlines Virginia’s seafood supply chain components, and evaluates the direct, indirect, and induced economic impacts of Virginia’s seafood industry in 2019. Utilizing an analysis-by-parts method in IMPLAN, primary expenditure data from watermen, aquaculture farmers, processors, and distributors were collected through surveys. The efficacy of obtaining primary data through stakeholder surveys heavily relies on the investigator’s interpersonal skills to establish trust and elucidate the study’s benefits, particularly its potential to inform policy decisions. In 2019, the Virginia seafood industry’s estimated total economic contributions amounted to USD 1.1 billion, supporting 7187 individuals. This impact encompasses 6050 direct jobs, 523 indirect jobs, and 614 induced jobs, primarily benefiting watermen and coastal communities. Furthermore, the industry’s influence extends beyond its immediate economic sphere, supporting diverse sectors such as polystyrene foam manufacturing, boat building, sporting and athletic goods, and commercial and industrial machinery. Wages and salaries disbursed throughout the seafood supply chain ripple to Virginia’s economy, benefiting nondepository credit intermediation, owner-occupied dwellings, and real estate sectors. Future research focusing on seafood sales in restaurants and retail outlets will complete the understanding of the seafood industry’s broader economic impact on the state.
Assessing nitrogen and phosphorus removal potential of five plant species in floating treatment wetlands receiving simulated nursery runoff
Spangler, Jonathan T.; Sample, David J.; Fox, Laurie J.; Albano, Joseph P.; White, Sarah A. (2019-02)
The feasibility of using floating treatment wetlands (FTWs) to treat runoff typical of commercial nurseries was investigated using two 8-week trials with replicated mesocosms. Plants were supported by Beemat rafts. Five monoculture treatments of Agrostis alba (red top), Canna x generalis Firebird' (canna lily), Carex stricta (tussock sedge), Iris ensata Rising Sun' (Japanese water iris), Panicum virgatum (switchgrass), two mixed species treatments, and an unplanted control were assessed. These plant species are used for ornamental, wetland, and biofuel purposes. Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) removals were evaluated after a 7-day hydraulic retention time (HRT). N removal (sum of ammonium-N, nitrate-N, and nitrite-N) from FTW treatments ranged from 0.255 to 0.738gm(-2)d(-1) (38.9 to 82.4% removal) and 0.147 to 0.656gm(-2)d(-1) (12.9 to 59.6% removal) for trials 1 and 2, respectively. P removal (phosphate-P) ranged from 0.052 to 0.128gm(-2)d(-1) (26.1 to 64.7% removal) for trial 1, and 0.074 to 0.194gm(-2)d(-1) (26.8 to 63.2% removal) for trial 2. Panicum virgatum removed more N and P than any other FTW treatment and the control in both trials. Results show that species selection and timing of FTW harvest impact the rate and mass of nutrient remediation. FTWs can effectively remove N and P from runoff from commercial nurseries.
Assessing the Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Salmon Frame Proteins through Different By-Product/Water Ratios and pH Regimes
Valencia, Pedro; Valdivia, Silvana; Nuñez, Suleivys; Ovissipour, Reza; Pinto, Marlene; Ramirez, Cristian; Perez, Alvaro; Ruz, Manuel; Garcia, Paula; Jimenez, Paula; Almonacid, Sergio (MDPI, 2021-12-08)
The enzymatic hydrolysis of fish by-product proteins is traditionally carried out by mixing ground by-products with water. In addition, pH control is used to avoid pH drops. Higher costs are involved due to the use of pH control systems and the consequent energy cost in the drying stage. This work aimed to evaluate the effect of these conditions on the hydrolysis of salmon frame (SF) proteins, including the SF hydrolysis without added water. SF hydrolysis by subtilisin at 50, 75, and 100% SF under different pH regimes were evaluated by released α-amino (α-NH) groups, total nitrogen, degree of hydrolysis, and estimated peptide chain length (PCL) at 55 °C. The concentration of released α-NH groups was higher in the conditions with less added water. However, the nitrogen recovery decreased from 50 to 24% at 50 and 100% SF, respectively. Changing the SF/water ratio had a more significant effect than changing the pH regime. Estimated PCL changed from 5–7 to 7–9 at 50 and 100% SF, respectively. The operating conditions affected the hydrolysis performance and the molecular characteristics of the hydrolysate.
Assessing the Role of Cyberbiosecurity in Agriculture: A Case Study
Drape, Tiffany A.; Magerkorth, Noah; Sen, Anuradha; Simpson, Joseph; Seibel, Megan M.; Murch, Randall Steven; Duncan, Susan E. (Frontiers, 2021-08-19)
Agriculture has adopted the use of smart technology to help meet growing food demands. This increased automation and associated connectivity increases the risk of farms being targeted by cyber-attacks. Increasing frequency of cybersecurity breaches in many industries illustrates the need for securing our food supply chain. The uniqueness of biological data, the complexity of integration across the food and agricultural system, and the importance of this system to the U.S. bioeconomy and public welfare suggests an urgency as well as unique challenges that are not common across all industries. To identify and address the gaps in awareness and knowledge as well as encourage collaborations, Virginia Tech hosted a virtual workshop consisting of professionals from agriculture, cybersecurity, government, and academia. During the workshop, thought leaders and influencers discussed 1) common food and agricultural system challenges, scenarios, outcomes and risks to various sectors of the system; 2) cyberbiosecurity strategies for the system, gaps in workforce and training, and research and policy needs. The meeting sessions were transcribed and analyzed using qualitative methodology. The most common themes that emerged were challenges, solutions, viewpoints, common vocabulary. From the results of the analysis, it is evident that none of the participating groups had available cybersecurity training and resources. Participants were uncertain about future pathways for training, implementation, and outreach related to cyberbiosecurity. Recommendations include creating training and education, continued interdisciplinary collaboration, and recruiting government involvement to speed up better security practices related to cyberbiosecurity.
Assessment of the Impact of Viticulture Extension Programs in Virginia
Ferreira, Gustavo F. C.; Hatch, Tremain; Wolf, Tony K. (2016-10)
The study discussed in this article assessed the impact of Virginia Cooperative Extension (VCE) on the Virginia wine grape industry. An online survey was developed and administered to members of the Virginia Vineyards Association. The results indicate that the resources and recommendations VCE and Virginia Tech have provided have been beneficial to Virginia grape growers, although growers who operate larger farms, produce wine commercially, or have higher levels of viticulture training are less likely to benefit from the relevant programs. Growers operating near where the programs are often delivered and those with higher levels of experience have benefited the most.
Avaliação do potencial do mercado consumidor de lambari da Baixada Santista
Gonçalves, Fernando Henrique A. (2011-12-30)
O presente estudo teve como objetivo avaliar o potencial do mercado consumidor de lambari na Baixada Santista. Foram feitas entrevistas por meio de questionários específicos, aplicados entre atacadistas do CEAGESP, localizado na capital paulista, e varejistas que comercializam pescado na Baixada Santista. Além disso, foram realizados testes de aceitação do lambari com consumidores finais em um quiosque de praia e um pesque-pague. O potencial de mercado do lambari foi detectado nas demandas dos diferentes equipamentos de comercialização varejista. Além disso, esta espécie apresenta vantagens competitivas em relação à manjuba, que possui características similares quanto ao modo de consumo. Para o aproveitamento desse potencial é necessário que os produtores adequem os custos de produção e a apresentação do produto final às especificidades exigidas pelo segmento de mercado escolhido para a comercialização.
Bacterioses of Soybean
Balaž, Jelica S.; Aćimović, Srđan G. (University of Novi Sad, Serbia, 2008-10-01)
Bark and wood tissues of American elm exhibit distinct responses to Dutch elm disease
Sherif, Sherif M.; Erland, L.A.; Shukla, M.R.; Saxena, P.K. (Nature, 2017-08-02)
Tolerance to Dutch elm disease (DED) has been linked to the rapid and/or high induction of diseaseresponsive genes after infection with the fungus Ophiostoma novo-ulmi. Although the fungal infection by O. novo-ulmi primarily takes places in xylem vessels, it is still unclear how xylem contributes to the defense against DED. Taking advantage of the easy separation of wood and bark tissues in young American elm saplings, here we show that most disease-responsive genes exhibited higher expression in wood compared to bark tissues after fungal infection. On the other hand, the stress-related phytohormones were generally more abundant in the bark compared to wood tissues. However, only endogenous levels of jasmonates (JAs), but not salicylic acid (SA) and abscisic acid (ABA) increased in the inoculated tissues. This, along with the upregulation of JA-biosynthesis genes in inoculated bark and core tissues further suggest that phloem and xylem might contribute to the de novo biosynthesis of JA after fungal infection. The comparison between two tolerant elm varieties, ‘Valley Forge’ and ‘Princeton,’ also indicated that tolerance against DED might be mediated by different mechanisms in the xylem. The present study sheds some light on the amplitude and kinetics of defense responses produced in the xylem and phloem in response to DED.

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