Implications of Bottled Water Use in Rural Central Appalachia

An increasing number of Americans identify bottled water as their preferred water source to meet household needs, despite additional expenses and less stringent quality reporting requirements. Previous studies note perceptions of poor water quality and/or distrust in public water authorities as the primary drivers of bottled water use. Examinations of Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) violation data validate these perceptions and highlight the increased prevalence of drinking water disparities in rural, low-income communities. This effort aims to assess in-home and bottled drinking water throughout rural Central Appalachia: a documented water inequity hotspot. To evaluate the uses, perceptions, motivations, expenditures, and quality related to in-home and bottled water sources, 24 homes in three different Central Appalachian counties were recruited to complete household surveys. Concurrently, 23 in-home (11 municipally and 12 privately sourced), 11 brands of bottled water, and four roadside spring samples identified as preferred drinking water sources were collected and analyzed for regulated (bacteria, inorganic ions) and emerging (per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), microplastics) contaminants via Standard Methods and compared to Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) standards (if applicable). The majority of respondents viewed their in-home water quality as satisfactory or less due to negative organoleptic perceptions (taste, odor, appearance). In-home and roadside spring water quality generally aligned with poor perceptions: coliform bacteria, E. coli, aluminum, iron, manganese, and sodium were detected at concentrations above United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) standards and guidelines. Approximately 71 percent of homes reported bottled water as their primary drinking water source. Bottled water samples did not exceed any USEPA health-based regulations. The presence of inorganic ions contaminants varied greatly across the 11 brands of bottled water assessed, and within brand variability was noted in one bottled water brand purchased at two different locations. PFAS compounds were detected in both in-home and bottled water samples, though at relatively low levels. Microplastic particles were found in all samples, regardless of source. Statistical analyses revealed significantly higher concentrations of all contaminants in point-of-use samples compared to bottled water, except total microplastic particle count. Bottled water is a safe drinking water source for those without access to or confidence in their in-home drinking water, though associated time and financial burdens are considerable.