Impact of Flow Rate and Water Age on Opportunistic Pathogen Growth: Implications for Water Conservation, Fixture Design, and Policy
| dc.contributor.author | Busch, Sarah Elizabeth | en |
| dc.contributor.committeechair | Edwards, Marc A. | en |
| dc.contributor.committeemember | Pruden, Amy | en |
| dc.contributor.committeemember | Falkinham, Joseph O. III | en |
| dc.contributor.committeemember | Rhoads, William J. | en |
| dc.contributor.department | Environmental Science and Engineering | en |
| dc.date.accessioned | 2021-07-16T06:00:11Z | en |
| dc.date.available | 2021-07-16T06:00:11Z | en |
| dc.date.issued | 2020-01-22 | en |
| dc.description.abstract | Water conservation efforts have led to a decrease of flow rates in buildings, increasing water retention time (WRT) and sometimes opportunistic pathogens (OPs) growth. A novel experiment with replicated distal pipes operated at commonly used flow rates was designed to evaluate the effects of water age, flush frequency, flow rate, pipe diameter, water temperature, disinfectant residual presence, and microbial regrowth in hot and cold pipes. In cold water, total bacterial regrowth was a function of water age, plateauing after approximately 6 days at cell counts 20 times higher than influent water with minimal disinfectants. In warm (40 °C) water, most regrowth occurred in the heater tank, reducing the relative growth in the pipes. When cold water with ~1 mg/L chloramine was present, cold-water total bacteria regrowth plateaued after about 2 days WRT with cell counts 14 times higher than influent water, but regrowth still occurred in the heater tank. With 1 mg/L chloramine and elevated heater temperature (60 °C), regrowth in the tank was suppressed and cell counts in the pipes increased 82 times above cold-water influent levels at 7.5 days WRT. Legionella spp. and Mycobacterium spp. demonstrated opposite responses to flow rate with chloramine minimization. The highest levels of Legionella spp. (1.7 log higher than influent) were present when flow velocity was >2 feet per second (fps), but the highest levels of Mycobacterium spp. (1.5 log higher than influent) were observed at the lowest flow velocity (0.33 fps). This study highlights the tradeoffs between water conservation and water quality. | en |
| dc.description.abstractgeneral | Regulations that decrease flow rates of faucets and showers have driven water conservation in buildings, increasing the time water sits in pipes and tanks (i.e., water retention time or WRT) elevating the likelihood of harmful bacterial growth. A novel faucet rig was designed to carry out a comprehensive experiment revealing the combined effects of WRT, flush frequency, flow rate, pipe diameter, water temperature, and disinfectant residual presence on water quality at the tap. In water without disinfectant, growth in cold water pipes increased with WRT, but in hot water the growth of bacteria occurred mostly in the warm water tank at 40 °C, which is a temperature known to leave a system vulnerable to bacterial growth. Cold pipes with a disinfectant residual saw a decrease in bacterial regrowth in comparison to cold pipes without disinfectant. However, if there was a disinfectant residual and an elevated water heater temperature set point in the tank, regrowth occurred when water was in the pipes at room temperature and there were lower disinfectant residuals. Potentially harmful bacteria, like Legionella spp. and Mycobacterium spp., which cause Legionnaires' disease and nontuberculous Mycobacteria (NTM) infections, grew more readily at higher flow rates, whereas others grew less readily, but all harmful bacteria were reduced by lowering WRT to less than ≈ 2 days and maintaining the water at 60 °C with a disinfectant. This study has important implications for regulations requiring minimum disinfectant levels to buildings, faucet flow rates regulations, and design and operation of building plumbing systems. | en |
| dc.description.degree | Master of Science | en |
| dc.format.medium | ETD | en |
| dc.identifier.other | vt_gsexam:23459 | en |
| dc.identifier.uri | http://hdl.handle.net/10919/104182 | en |
| dc.publisher | Virginia Tech | en |
| dc.rights | In Copyright | en |
| dc.rights.uri | http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/ | en |
| dc.subject | green buildings | en |
| dc.subject | water conservation | en |
| dc.subject | Legionella | en |
| dc.subject | flow rate | en |
| dc.subject | water age | en |
| dc.title | Impact of Flow Rate and Water Age on Opportunistic Pathogen Growth: Implications for Water Conservation, Fixture Design, and Policy | en |
| dc.type | Thesis | en |
| thesis.degree.discipline | Environmental Engineering | en |
| thesis.degree.grantor | Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University | en |
| thesis.degree.level | masters | en |
| thesis.degree.name | Master of Science | en |
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