Departmental Publications, Forest Resources and Environmental Conservation

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Yields of Old-Field Loblolly Pine Plantations
Burkhart, Harold E.; Parker, Robert C.; Strub, Mike R.; Oderwald, Richard G. (Virginia Tech. Division of Forestry and Wildlife Resources, 1972-12)
Loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) is one of the most important commercial species to the forest industries in the South, with a range extending through the Piedmont and the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains from Maryland to eastern Texas. Although there is a great deal of published information on the growth and yield of loblolly pine, much of the data for these studies has been collected in the southeastern part of the natural loblolly pine range and published results have generally involved only volume units such as board feet, cubic feet, or cords. Consequently, a cooperative yield study between the Division of Forestry and Wildlife Resources at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University and several industrial forestry organizations was initiated to gather yield information which would be primarily applicable to the Virginia area. The scope of this study included per-tree and peracre data for the various volume units as well as for green and dry weight. This paper presents per-acre yield information in volume and weight units for old-field loblolly pine plantations.
Costs of Establishing Loblolly Pine Plantations In Virginia: Methodology and Estimates
Thompson, Emmett F.; Shores, Michael E.; Sullivan, Alfred D. (Virginia Tech. Division of Forestry and Wildlife Resources, 1973-02)
Forest regeneration decisions are among the most important that foresters make. In many instances, the cost of regeneration may be the largest cost item incurred in producing a timber crop. Accordingly, information on the cost of establishing satisfactorily stocked stands is a necessary ingredient for effective forestry decision making. This report presents a method for obtaining such information and provides cost estimates for establishing loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) plantations in Virginia.
The Wildlife Management Planning Game: Administrative Manual
Sullivan, Alfred D.; Guynn, David C. (Virginia Tech. Division of Forestry and Wildlife Resources, 1973-09)
This manual has a twofold purpose: (1) to provide operating information for the game administrator, and (2) to provide documentation of the FORTRAN IV program which is the basis of the Wildlife Management Planning Game. It is assumed that the reader is already familiar with the manual entitled 11 Instructions to Participants." It provides the player with an introduction to computer simulation and describes the game itself. The Wildlife Management Planning Game provides the participant with an opportunity to make decisions in an environment of complex relationships and uncertainties. Enthusiasm and motivation in the learning experience are enhanced when the player can view the future outcome of his policy decisions and revise them with the aid of his increased "experience." Players should be allowed opportunities for policy revision and reruns during the gaming session. This allows the player to fully interpret results and formulate policy variations in an effort to improve his plan. After each play of the game, group discussions should be encouraged so that the player can benefit from the experiences of fellow students.
The Wildlife Management Planning Game: Instructions to Participants
Guynn, David C.; Sullivan, Alfred D. (Virginia Tech. Division of Forestry and Wildlife Resources, 1973-09)
During the spring of 1971, a project was undertaken with the objective of constructing a unique simulation game that would be helpful in improving wildlife management planning. The game would be used primarily for inservice training of state game agency personnel and as a teaching aid in university courses. In addition, it could be used to familiarize those not acquainted with wildlife management planning with the significant decision variables of the system. Through the game, these people could become better acquainted with wildlife management planning and be able to understand and appreciate some of the unique problems involved. The Wildlife Management Planning Game involves the planning processes of the wildlife management agency of an eastern state. The participant is placed in the position of a planner for a mountainous region. His primary responsibilities are scheduling management activities and setting hunting regulations. A five-year operating plan is formulated and then implemented on an annual basis. Each year, reports are issued that reflect public reaction to the planner's policies and provide information about man-days of hunting, population levels, estimates of legal and illegal harvests, and budget constraints for the following year. The planner is allowed to modify the operating plan after examination of the annual report if he feels changes are necessary or desirable. This process provides "on-the-job” learning experience by allowing the participant to see the results of his decisions at different points in time and, hopefully, of profiting from his mistakes.
Economic Guidelines for Loblolly Pine Management in Virginia
Thompson, Emmett F.; Mantie, Robert C.; Sullivan, Alfred D.; Burkhart, Harold E. (Virginia Tech. Division of Forestry and Wildlife Resources, 1973-12)
Recent studies (e.g. Southern Forest Resource Analysis Committee, 1969; U. S. Forest Service, 1972) indicate that wood requirements may exceed available supplies by the end of this century. The latest forest survey of Virginia (Knight and McClure, 1967) indicated a 15 percent excess of pine cut over pine growth As a result of this latter finding, Virginia's General Assembly passed a 1970 Reforestation of Timberlands Act. This Act provides financial assistance to private landowners to restore former pine growing lands to pine production. Virginia has clearly established a state policy of encouraging investment in forest production. However, individual landowners may have alternative uses for their land and/or capital, or they may not be fully aware of their land's potential for timber. The specific objective of this study was to develop a means for making economic data on using their land for loblolly pine production available to Virginia's individual forest landowners. The study was limited to loblolly pine for several reasons. Loblolly pine is perhaps the most important of the. timber species currently grown in Virginia, and it is expected to increase in importance.Of the 67.5 million tree seedlings planted in Virginia in 1972, 62.0 million were loblolly pine and 36.5 million of these were planted by farmers and other individuals (Virginia Forests, 1972). Loblolly pine accounts for over 90 per cent of the approximately 85 thousand acres artificially regenerated in Virginia each year (Shores, 1970). In addition, new information on the physical yields of natural stands of loblolly pine and loblolly pine plantations in Virginia has recently become available (Burkhart, et al., 1972a; Burkhart, et al., 1972b).
The 1972 Virginia Outdoor Recreation Inventory
Leuschner, William A.; Groves, David L.; Bolger, William T.; Stokes, Gerald L. (Virginia Tech. Division of Forestry and Wildlife Resources, 1974)
The Virginia Commission of Outdoor Recreation coordinated the inventorying of outdoor recreation facilities in the state between June and December, 1972. The inventory is an integral part of the Virginia Outdoors Plan Information System. Its primary purpose was to provide data for the Commission to formulate and write the statewide comprehensive outdoor recreation plan. However, the intended use of these data was much broader. It was envisaged that they would be useful for other planning activities, such as those conducted by federal and state agencies or the 22 Planning District Commissions in Virginia, as well as for various research activities, special studies, and teaching. The purpose of this publication is threefold. The first is to encourage further use of the data by informing the public of its existence and the specific variables contained therein. The second is to present a limited but comprehensive set of data which can be used to answer general inquiries and which will save interested parties the trouble of writing to obtain it. Finally, we wish to inform the public of the availability of the data in other forms which may better suit individual needs but which would be too numerous to publish in this bulletin.
Simulation of Individual Tree Growth and Stand Development in Managed Loblolly Pine Plantations
Daniels, Richard F.; Burkhart, Harold E. (Virginia Tech. Division of Forestry and Wildlife Resources, 1975)
A FORTRAN based simulator, PTAEDA, was developed to model growth in managed loblolly pine (Pin us taeda L.) plantations, using individual trees as the basic growth units. In PTAEDA, trees are assigned coordinate locations in a stand and "grown" annually as a function of their size, the site quality, and the competition from neighbors. Growth increments are adjusted by stochastic elements representing genetic and microsite variability. Mortality is generated stochastically through Bernouli trials. Subroutines were developed to simulate the effects of site preparation, thinning, and fertilization on tree and stand development. Comparisons with published yields showed close agreement for thinned and unthinned old-field plantations. Results indicated that, compared to stand-level models used in the past, the simulator is more flexible in terms of growth and yield estimation and evaluation of alternatives under a wide range of management regimes.
Site and Yield Information Applicable to Virginia’s Hardwoods: A Review
Evans, Thomas F.; Burkhart, Harold E.; Parker, Robert C. (Virginia Tech. Division of Forestry and Wildlife Resources, 1975)
In 1966 Virginia had a hardwood growing stock volume of 10.5 billion cubic feet and a hardwood sawtimber volume of almost 26. 3 billion board feet. Hardwood timber was distributed over more than 12.8 million acres of commercial forest land in the state (Knight and McClure, 1967). This hardwood timber is converted into a multitude of finished products. Hardwoods comprise well over one-half of the total volume in Virginia's multi-million dollar forest products industry each year. Thus the hardwood resource is very important to the welfare of the citizens of the Old Dominion. Despite the importance of hardwoods in Virginia's timber industry, most hardwood stands have not been placed under intensive forest management. An essential ingredient of a forest management program is information on the yields of timber products which can be achieved by the various tree species on different sites. Yield and site data which can be applied to Virginia's hardwoods are still relatively scarce. The purpose of this paper is to survey the primary works on the yields of hardwood species found in Virginia and to present results from studies on the relations of hardwood growth to various site conditions.
The Economics of Producing and Marketing Christmas Trees on Small Plantations in Virginia
Leuschner, William A.; Sellers, William A. (Virginia Tech. Division of Forestry and Wildlife Resources, 1975)
The purpose of this report is to assist potential and existing Christmas tree growers in making better informed decisions on investments in small Christmas tree plantations, We seek to accomplish this by presenting cost and revenue data and an analysis system to assess probable financial returns. Potential growers should find the entire report of interest although existing growers may want to concentrate their attention on the sections containing cost and revenue data and the discussion of financial analyses.
Computer-Implemented Simulation as a Planning Aid for State Fisheries Management Agencies
Clark, Richard D., Jr.; Lackey, Robert T. (Virginia Tech. Division of Forestry and Wildlife Resources, 1975)
A basic job of fisheries management agencies is to forecast the demand and produce the necessary supply of fishing opportunities. Present day angling consumption rates often exceed managers' ability to supply fishing opportunities of the desired quality. Therefore, a primary means for improving fisheries management may be to regulate angling consumption. Operations research techniques are well suited for handling the complexities involved with planning multiple action policies for regulating angler consumption. PISCES is a computer-implemented simulator of the inland fisheries management system of Tennessee, but is adaptable for use in any state. The purpose of PISCES is to aid in planning fisheries management decision policies at the macro-level. PISCES generates predictions of how fisheries management agency activities will affect angler use for a fiscal year. Subjective probability distributions for random variables and Monte Carlo simulation techniques are employed to produce an expected value and standard deviation for each prediction. Test runs under realistic hypothetical situations and discussions with personnel of Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency suggest that PISCES may help fisheries management agencies to improve budget allocation decisions, to formulate multiple action policies for regulating angler use, and to enhance fisheries development. A hypothetical application of PISCES in Tennessee is given.
Aids for Unit Planning on the Appalachian National Forests
Burkhart, Harold E.; Leuschner, William A.; Stuck, R. Dean; Porter, John R.; Reynolds, Marion R. Jr. (Virginia Tech. Division of Forestry and Wildlife Resources, 1976)
This report summarizes the results of studies conducted in response to a cooperative agreement between the Southern Region, U.S. Forest Service and the Department of Forestry and Forest Products, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. The objective of the agreement was to improve National Forest management planning techniques. The agreement covered the period July 1, 1973 to June 30, 1975. Literature citations are given for those who desire additional detail.
A General Population Dynamics Theory for Largemouth Bass
Jester, Douglas B. Jr.; Garling, Donald L. Jr.; Tipton, Alan R.; Lackey, Robert T. (Virginia Tech. Division of Forestry and Wildlife Resources, 1977)
In this report, we develop a general theory of the relationship between life history and population structure for largemouth bass. In its most usable form the model is represented by a stochastic integral equation that is analogous to the classical Lotka model for age structure of populations. The corresponding differential equations can also be used successfully when closed-form solutions are available or when the phenotype dimension is low enough to permit numerical solution. Three general conclusions are presented. First, population dynamics may be appropriately viewed as a consequence of life history phenomena. This view suggests that, at least where prediction of population structure or where explanation of the phenomena is desired, such phenomena as density-dependence may be most appropriately described by analyzing effects of population structure and density on life history in the population. The second conclusion is that variation in life history may be important in determining population structure. Terms describing effects of variation are explicitly included in the model equations. The magnitude of these terms, however, is completely unknown for any life histories with which we are familiar. The third conclusion to be drawn is that population structure, at least averaged over time, should be fairly stable in large populations. Effects of variation in small populations, on the other hand, have not been analyzed and might be important.
The 1977 Virginia Outdoor Recreation Needs Assessment
Roggenbuck, Joseph W. (Virginia Tech. Division of Forestry and Wildlife Resources, 1978)
This outdoor recreation needs assessment booklet, published by the School of Forestry and Wildlife Resources, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, in cooperation with the Virginia Commission of Outdoor Recreation, has three general purposes. Its primary purpose is to provide guidelines on the amount and location of current and projected needs for additional outdoor recreational opportunities to federal, state, and local agencies and organizations with responsibilities for the provision of outdoor recreation services. The second is to make the needs estimates easily available to agencies and organizations whose responsibilities do not include outdoor recreation, but whose activities may impinge upon that system. Finally, the data contained here should be useful in various research activities, special studies, and teaching regarding the Virginia outdoor recreation system. Need for outdoor recreation land and facilities, as defined in this booklet, represents the difference between demand for and supply of outdoor recreation opportunities. As such, a needs assessment requires the previous calculation of present and projected recreation demand and a thorough inventory of existing recreation supply. These analyses were accomplished in 1977 and have been published as the 1977 Virginia Outdoor Recreation Demand Survey and the 1977 Virginia Outdoor Recreation Inventory. Copies of these booklets are available from the Virginia Commission of Outdoor Recreation. Since the needs estimates are dependent upon the ever-changing demand for and supply of outdoor recreation lands and facilities, the figures contained in this booklet are only approximate. The estimates should be viewed as providing general guidelines for decision-making, and not as precise measures of current deficiencies in the state's outdoor recreation system.
Virginia’s Forest Products Industry
Wisdom, Harold W.; Hudspeth, Timothy G. (Virginia Tech. Division of Forestry and Wildlife Resources, 1978)
This report presents the results of an economic analysis of Virginia's forest products industry. The report is based on a special survey of wood use by the state's primary wood-using industries in 1976.
The 1977 Virginia Outdoor Recreation Demand Survey
Roggenbuck, Joseph W. (Virginia Tech. Division of Forestry and Wildlife Resources, 1978)
Knowledge of the present and projected public demand for outdoor recreation is a key element in the planning of a comprehensive system of outdoor recreation opportunities throughout Virginia. Public preferences for outdoor recreation experiences have changed dramatically in recent years, and formal measures of demand at any point in time remain only approximate. Nevertheless, demand analyses that are based upon the premise of satisfying public needs--as the public defines them--have a solid basis in the traditions and policies of governmental service agencies, and do provide a general guide for the planning, acquisition and development of outdoor recreation lands and facilities. This outdoor recreation demand booklet, published by the School of Forestry and Wildlife Resources, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, in cooperation with the Virginia Commission of Outdoor Recreation, has three general purposes. The first is to provide federal, state and local agencies and organizations with responsibilities for the provision of outdoor recreation services with guidelines on current and projected demand for recreation activities by state, region, and locality. The second is to make the demand estimates easily available to agencies and organizations whose responsibilities do not include outdoor recreation but whose activities may impinge upon that system. Finally, the data contained here should be useful in various research activities, special studies, and teaching regarding the Virginia outdoor recreation system.
The 1977 Virginia Outdoor Recreation Survey
Spittle, Gerald D.; Buhyoff, Gregory J.; Davy, John R. Jr.; McElwee, Robert L. (Virginia Tech. Division of Forestry and Wildlife Resources, 1978)
The Virginia Commission of Outdoor Recreation coordinated through the Planning District Commissions an inventory of statewide recreation resources between April, 1977 and September, 1977. The School of Forestry and Wildlife Resources, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, transferred the data into a computerized retrieval system from which this summary booklet was derived. This inventory is an integral part of the Virginia Outdoors Plan Information System. Its primary purpose is to provide information enabling the Commission to formulate and write the statewide comprehensive outdoor recreation plan. It is also envisaged that this data be used for other planning activities, such as those conducted by federal and state agencies or the 22 Planning District Commissions in Virginia, as well as for various research activities, special studies, and teaching. The purpose of this publication is threefold. The first is to encourage further use of the data it contains by informing the public of the specific type of information available. The second is to present a comprehensive set of data which can be used to answer general inquiries about the nature and distribution of recreation resources in the Commonwealth of Virginia. Finally, it is to advise that this data is available in other forms which may better suit individual needs but which would be too numerous to publish in this bulletin.
Methods for Modeling Individual Tree Growth and Stand Development in Seeded Loblolly Pine Stands
Daniels, Richard F.; Burkhart, Harold E.; Spittle, Gerald D.; Somers, Greg L. (Virginia Tech. Division of Forestry and Wildlife Resources, 1979)
Methods were developed to model growth and development of seeded loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) stands, using individual trees as the basic growth units. Aggregated spatial patterns and individual tree sizes are generated at age 10. Tree diameters and heights are then incremented annually as a function of their size, site quality, competition from neighbors, and stochastic components representing genetic and microsite variability. Individual tree mortality is determined stochastically through Bernouli trials. Subroutines were developed to simulate the effects of hardwood competition and control, thinning, and fertilization. The overall model was programmed in FORTRAN and initial tests were made with published yields. The initial stand generation components were calibrated using a comprehensive set of data from young seeded stands of loblolly pine, but individual tree growth and mortality components relied on previously published relationships developed for plantations. Results indicated that, in order to accurately model stand structure, the growth and mortality relationships must be calibrated for seeded stands. Data collection procedures, calibration methods, and recommendations for further work are discussed.
Main Stem Green and Dry Weights of Red Oak, White Oak, and Maple In the Appalachian Region of Virginia
Oderwald, Richard G.; Yaussy, Daniel A. (Virginia Tech. Division of Forestry and Wildlife Resources, 1980)
New emphasis has been placed on the weight of whole trees and portions of trees. Weight inventories and purchase of wood by weight are becoming increasingly common for saw logs as well as pulpwood. More information needs to be gathered on the weight of portions of tree stems, however, before weight can be a standard measurement unit. This information must also be flexible enough to be used with varying utilization standards so that new inventories will not be required when a standard changes. The objective of this study was to develop main stem green and dry weights with and without bark to various top diameters inside and outside bark for red oak, white oak, and maple in the Appalachian region of Virginia.
Evaluation of Ranked Set Sampling for Estimating Shrub Phytomass in Appalachian Oak Forests
Martin, Wayne L.; Sharik, Terry L.; Oderwald, Richard G.; Smith, David William (Virginia Tech. Division of Forestry and Wildlife Resources, 1980)
Ranked set sampling was introduced by McIntyre (1952) in estimating pasture yields. As described by McIntyre, the ranked set sampling procedure is implemented by first selecting a set of n elements at random from a population, and then raking those elements from lowest to highest by inspection of the variable of interest. The lowest ranked element is then measured. A second set of n elements is selected and ranked, and the second lowest element is measured. This process is continued until n such sets have been selected and n elements have been measured. The entire procedure can be repeated as many times as deemed necessary. McIntyre claimed that the ranked set estimator of the population mean was unbiased regardless of errors in ranking, and that with perfect ranking the variance of the mean from ranked set sampling would be less than that of random sampling when the number of measured elements is the same for both methods. Halls and Dell (1966) concluded that ranked set sampling was more efficient than simple random sampling in estimating pasture yields. A theoretical underpinning for ranked set sampling was provided by Dell and Clutter (1972), who also demonstrated that ranked set sampling is more efficient than random sampling even when errors in ranking are present. Ranked set sampling is clearly advantageous when measurement of an element is time consuming or costly and sample elements can be reliably ranked. The effectiveness of this technique has already been demonstrated for estimating forage and pasture yields. The objective of this study is to evaluate the effectiveness of ranked set sampling for estimating shrub phytomass in forest stands.
A Qualitative Analysis of The Southern Pine Beetle's Wildlife Impact
Maine, John D.; Leuschner, William A.; Tipton, Alan R. (Virginia Tech. Division of Forestry and Wildlife Resources, 1980)
Wildlife's social value has long been known. Early attempts to place dollar values on wildlife were crude (Stains and Barkalow, 1951; Collins, 1959) and often incomprehensible. For example, Collins found that each deer killed by bow hunters was worth $5,280 based on hunter expenditures. However, these early researchers were aware that it is important to consider wildlife's social value in forest management decisions. These include pest management dee is ions generally and Southern Pine Beetle ( Dendroctonus frontal is Zimm) (SPB) management decisions specifically. Wildlife has three basic values in the Southeast: recreational, aesthetic, and scientific. The recreational value is realized by the more than 30 million people who spend billions of dollars each year pursuing fish and game species. These people partially support the sporting arms and ammunition, camping equipment, campground, and restaurant industries.

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